IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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Riotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


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4R> 


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Microfiche 

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Couverture  endommagie 


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I     I   Coloured  pages/ 


v/ 


D 


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Only  edition  available/ 
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e 
b 
ri 
n 
n 


Pages  wholly  cr  partially  obscured  by  errata 
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ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
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obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


26X 


30X 


J 


12X 


16X 


20X 


24X 


28X 


32X 


The  copy  filmed  hare  has  bean  raproducad  thank* 
to  the  ganaroaity  of: 

Library, 

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Tha  imagas  appearing  hare  are  the  best  quaiity 
possibie  considering  the  condition  and  iegibiiity 
of  the  originai  copy  and  in  Iceeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


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beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  originai  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  Illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — »■  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  y  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 

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beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


1 

2 

3 

L'exemplaire  film*  fut  reproduit  grAca  i  la 
gAnArosltA  de:        ' 

Bibliothtqua, 

Commiuion  Gfologiqua  du  Canada 

Les  Images  suivantes  ont  ^4  raprodultes  avec  le 
plus  grand  soln,  compta  tenu  de  la  condition  at 
da  la  nettetA  de  rexemplaire  film*,  et  en 
conformity  avec  las  conditions  du  contrat  de 
fllmage. 

Les  exemplaires  orlginaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  ImprimAe  sent  fllmte  en  commen^ant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  «n  terminant  soit  par  la 
darniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  la  second 
plat,  salon  le  ces.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
orlginaux  sent  filmAs  9n  commenpent  par  la 
pramlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'impression  ou  d'lllustratlon  et  en  terminant  par 
la  darnlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaltra  sur  la 
dernlAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cas:  le  symbols  »►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE",  le 
symbols  y  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartas,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atre 
filmte  A  des  taux  de  r6ductlon  diff6rents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  clichA,  11  est  fllmA  A  partir 
de  Tangle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  drolte, 
et  de  haut  en  has,  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d'Images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrant  la  mAthode. 


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PRACTICAL    TREATISE 

COAL,    PETROLEUM, 

AND  OTHER  DISTILLED  OILS, 
By  ABRAHAM  GESNER,  M.D.,  F.G.S. 

^cconb  (Bbitioir,  llcfaiseb  Bub  ^nlargeb. 
By  GEORGE  WELTDEX  GESNER, 

CONSULTING  CnEMIST   AND  BNOISEEH. 


ataalou  auil  WiUiami  Weill,  Owned  li/  I'uuuuiii  i'nUuUuiu  Co. 


NEW  YORK: 
BAILLli:RE  BROTHERS,  5  20  BROADWAY 


LONDON:      • 

I'AKIS: 

II      n  A  I  L  M  E  R  E  , 

J.  B.  BAILLIEUE  ET  FILS, 

!« 

iil»  Ukoknt  St. 

liiiB  Hautkfeuille. 

^ 

MKLltOUUNE: 

MAIHUD: 

K.     HAILLIEBE, 

0 .    B  A  I  L  L  Y  -  B  A  I  L  L  I  E  U  E  , 

Collins  St.| 

Calls  dcl  PiUNOtPS. 

1805. 

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'y:-y  ;■ 


-'•'% 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  jear  1805,  by 

BAILLIERE  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


R.    CRAIOHEAl),    PRINTER, 
$1,  S8,  and  86  Centre  Sirett,  AVic   Vvrk 


«    •  .• •     • 
•  t   I  •    •• 


.••  • •«  • 


■  •••     •••••• 


•  ••••      •«•••    • 

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I 


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PREFACE. 


■% 


The  work  before  the  reader  has  been  prepared  with  a  desire 
to  aid  tlie  manufacturer  of  distilled  oils  in  his  avocation,  and 
to  record  the  most  important  facts  regarding  the  various  raw 
materials  used  by  him.  To  assist  the  engineer  and  machinist, 
drawings,  taken  from  the  original  plans  used  by  the  author 
in  the  erection  of  petroleum  and  coal-oil  apparatus,  have  been 
inserted.  Original  drawings  of  petroleum  wells  and  boring 
tools  have  also  been  added,  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  the 
mode  of  procuring  one  of  the  chief  articles  used  by  the  oil 
manufacturer.  A  great  deal  of  valuable  information  relating 
to  the  production  of  hydrocarbon  oils  is  scattered  throughout 
the  French,  German,  and  English  scientific  journals,  and  is 
contained  in  numerous  patents  to  which  the  public  have  not 
convenient  access.  The  information  collected  from  these 
sources  that  seemed  applicable  to  the  present  treatise,  has 
been  carefully  recorded.  The  author  of  the  first  edition  of 
the  work  left,  at  the  time  of  his  decease,  many  memoranda 
connected  with  it,  intending  to  insert  them  in  a  second 
edition.  The  author  of  the  present  edition  has  endeavored 
to  carry  out  his  father's  intentions  regarding  it,  and  has 
made  such  revisions  and  enlargements  as  seemed  called  for. 
Care  has  been  taken  to  present  such  facts  regarding 
petroleum  wells  and  petroleum  aa  may  be  useful  to  those 
interested  in  them. 


«.-^9fi 


IV 


PREFACE. 


It  is  hoped  that  the  professional  chemist  may  find  in  this 
treatise  something  to  interest  him,  and  especially  as  regards 
the  homologous  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  and  the 
manipulation  of  aniline. 

69  WiujAM  Sthkbt,  Njsw  York,  July,  1865. 


■rf^ 


.'All. 


¥  -T 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Early  records  and  progress  of  the  distillation  of  oils  from  coals  and  other 
bituminous  substances. — Introduction  of  kerosene,  patents,  petroleum, 
varieties  of  coals ;  their  origin  and  composition. — Effects  produced  upon 
coals  by  heat. — Variety  of  oils  distilled  from  petroleuni,  coals,  bitumen, 
eta — Products  of  common  bituminous  coals,  etc 1 

CHAPTER  II. 

Petroleum  of  the  United  States. — ^Tlieories  as  to  its  Origin. — Geological  Fea- 
tures of  the  Petroleum  Regions. — Petroleum  Wells. — Boring  for  Petroleum. 
— Boring  Tools  and  Machinery. — Petroleum  of  Canada,  South  America, 
Trinidad,  Barbadoes,  Burmab,  etc. 16 

CHAPTER  III. 

Coal — Bituminous  Clays  and  Shales— Bitumen — Tabu  d  Volatile  Matter, 
Coke  and  Crude  Oil  from  Coals,  etc. 44 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Nature  of  the  products  distilled  from  Bituminous  Substances. — Modes  of 
obtaining  Oils. — Retorts. — D-shaped  Retorts. — Revolving  Retorts. — Ver- 
tical Retorta — Clay  Retorts. — Brick  Ovens. — Coke  Ovens. — Stilla — Con- 
densers.— A^tators. — Supor-heatera 69 


CHAPTER  V. 

Products  of  the  distillation  of  wood,  coals,  asphaltum,  bitumen,  petroleum, 
and  other  substances  capable  of  yielding  oils.. 89 


>* 


i' ;:sl 


I K 


VI 


C0NTKNT9. 


CIIAl'TKR  VI. 

Composition  of  distilled  oils.— IIoraologouB  compounds.— Tnblo  of  the 
same. — Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen.— (Iuhcous  conipnunds.— 
Homologues  obtuined  from  coal  tnr,  coal,  bitumen,  caoutchouc,  etc  .  .110 

CnAPTER  VII. 

Oxidation  of  the  impurities  oontainod  in  crude  hydrocarbon  oils. — Action  of 
acids,  alkalies,  and  other  agcnt.s. — Sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  permanga- 
nate of  potash. — Methods  of  purillcation. — Extracts  from  patents,  etc.  .127 

CIUrTER  VIII. 

Buildings  and  Machinery. — Method  of  Manufaeturinf;  and  Purifying  the  Oilg 
distilled  from  Coals  and  otlier  Bituminous  Substances,  and  tho  Products 
derived  therefrom. — Distilling  Ijy  Steam. — Continual  Distillation. — Paraffin. 
— Lubricating  Oils. — Purification  of  Petroleum.— Petroleum  Refinery. — 
J'Jslimate  of  Cost. — Hydrometer  and  Pyrometer. — Cements,  etc 146 


COAL,  PETROLEUM,  AND  OTHER  DISHLLED 

OILS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Early  records  and  prngross  of  tlie  diHtillation  of  oils  from  coals  and  other 
bituminous  substances. — Introduction  of  korosone,  patents,  petroleum^ 
varieties  of  ooals ;  tlieir  origin  and  composition. — Effects  produced  upott 
coals  by  heat — Variety  of  oils  distilled  from  petroleum,  coals,  bitumen^ 
etc. — Products  of  common  bituminous  coals,  etc. 

In  a  treatise  devoted  to  the  manufacture  and  purification 
of  oils,  it  might  be  deemed  proper  to  consider  the  oleagi- 
nous substances  derived  from  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms;  but  the  present  treatise  is  intended  to  give  & 
descriptive  account  of  the  mineral  oils  only,  and  the 
modes  by  which  they  are  manufactured  and  purified. 

The  rapid  advances  made  during  the  last  fifteen  years  ia 
developing  mineral  oils,  and  their  growing  importance  to  the 
world  for  ilium inaiing,  and  various  other  purposes,  give 
them  a  value  not  rivalled  by  many  articles  of  commerce. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  different  parts  of  the  world, 
civilized  and  barbarous,  were  acquainted  with  those  natural 
oils  which  flow  from  the  earth,  namely,  mineral  oil,  or 
naphtha,  bitumen,  etc.  Herodotus,  the  Greek  historian, 
who  composed  his  history  440  years  before  Christ,  speaks 
of  a  place  called  Arderrica,  thirty-five  miles  from  Susa, 
where   there    were  wells   which   yielded    bitumen,   salt, 


11 


8 


EARLY   RECORDS. 


w 


and  oil.  In  place  of  a  buck(>t,  half  of  a  wineskin  waa 
used  to  draw  tho  prutluct  of  these  wells,  which  was  per- 
mitted to  settle  in  tanks,  in  which  the  bitumen  and  salt 
collected  and  hardened,  tho  oil  being  (bawn  olV  into  casks. 
The  oil  was  called  by  tho  Persian  <  "  Rliadinace,"  waa 
bhiek,  and  had  an  iin|)l('asant  odor. 

Tlie  Persians,  Hiirniese,  and  other  nations  still  continue  to 
employ  those  substances  in  their  crude  state  to  give  light, 
and  (if»r  medicinal  purposes.  As  early  as  lfi9-l  Va'.vU',  Han- 
cock, and  Portlock  made  ^^yiich^  tar,  and  oyle  out  of  a  kind 
of  stone"  and  obtained  patents  therefor.  In  1701  oils  were 
distilled  from  black  bituminous  shale,  and  were  employed 
in  the  cure  of  certain  diseases,  as  stated  in  Lewis's  Materia 
Medica  for  that  year. 

More  than  a  century  ago  oils  were  obtained  by  tho  dis- 
tillation of  coals,  but  the  purification  of  those  oils,  and 
their  application  to  'he  common  reiiuiremonts  of  life,  have 
been  slow  in  their  progress,  and  are  not  even  now  brought 
to  perfection.  The  papers  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don, the  Philosophical  Transactions,  and  other  European 
publications,  give  accounts  of  tho  distillation  of  oils  from 
coids  and  other  bituminous  substances.  In  1781  tho  Earl 
of  Dundonald  obtained  oils  from  coals  by  submitting  them 
to  dry  distillation  in  coke  ovens,  like  those  employed  by 
gome  manufacturers  of  the  present  day  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. Laurent,  Reichenbach,  and  others  distilled  the  tars 
obtained  from  bituminous  schists.  These  tars  were  purified 
in  some  degree  by  Selligue,  and  the  oils  subsequently 
obtained  an  extensive  sale  in  Europe  for  burning  in  lamps, 
and  for  lubricating  machinery.  Many  other  chemists  have 
from  time  to  time  contributed  improvements  in  the  purifi- 
cation of  hydrocarbon  oils. 

The  discovery  of  coal  gas  brought  a  new  class  of  oils  to 


PATENTS. 


lilsU) 


tho  notice  of  the  chemist,  but  the  purification  of  those  oils, 
and  their  application  to  fiSoful  purposes,  have  been  but 
slowly  advanced. 

The  first  successful  attempt  to  manufacture  oils  from 
coals  in  America  was  made  by  Dr.  Abraham  Oesner.  Oil 
from  coal  was  made  and  consumed  in  lamps  by  him  in  his 
public  lectures  at  Prince  Edward's  Island,  in  August,  1846, 
and  subsequently  at  Ilalifax,  Nova  Scotia,  accounts  of 
which  are  still  extant.  The  patents  afterwards  obtained 
for  his  improvementa,  known  as  tho  "Kerosene  Patents," 
wore  sold  to  the  North  American  Kerosene  Gas  Light  Com- 
pany, and  the  oils  were  manufactured  and  sold  under  ibe 
denomination  of  '*  Kerosene  Oil."*  Several  patents, 
obtained  by  other  persons  at  later  dates,  are  but  modifica- 
tions of  the  mmios  of  manufacture  previously  laid  down, 
and  cimtain  but  little  that  is  new  in  principle. 

The  retorts,  stills,  and  other  appliances  for  this  kind  of 
manufacture  have  been  constantly  varied,  and  have  not 
yet  been  so  perfected  as  to  meet  the  general  approval  of 
manufacturers.  In  a  future  chaptor  these  varieties  of  appa- 
ratus will  be  doscrib<.'d. 

Patents  were  granted  in  England,  in  1847,  to  Charles  B. 
Mansfield,  for  '*  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  and 
purification  of  spirituous  substances  and  oils  applicable  to 
the  purposes  of  artificial  light,"  etc.  Mr.  Mansfield's  ope- 
rations appear  to  have  been  chiefly  directed  to  the  coal  tar 
of  gas  workis,  from  which  he  obtained  benzole.  He  was 
perhaps  the  first  to  introduce  the  benzole  or  atmospheric 
light,  which  is  described  at  length  in  his  specifications. 

James  Young,  of  Manchester,  secured  a  patent  in  England 
(Oct.  7,  1850),   and  subsequently  in  the  United  States 
(March  23,  18o2\  for  *•  the  obtaining  of  paraffine  oil,  or  an 
*  From  xnfit,  wax,  aud  Uatov,  oil. 


:i\ 


f^'ki^kl. 


10 


EEKOSENi:. 


II 


oil  containing  paraffine,  and  paraffine  from  bituminous 
coals."  These  patents  have  been  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion, and  law  proceedings  have  been  instituted  by  Mr. 
Young  against  several  oil  companies  for  infringements  of 
his  alleged  rights. 

The  manufacture,  nevertheless,  extended  very  rapidly 
to  the  chief  cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  of  the 
coal  districts  of  the  interior.  The  great  cheapness  of  the 
oil  procured  by  the  distillation  of  petroleum  has,  however, 
almost  caused  the  coal  distillation  to  be  suspended.  It 
will  only  be  re<^umed  when  the  petroleum  wells  cease  to 
yield  sufficient  oil  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  it  is 
now  applied.  From  a  calculation  made  in  1861,  it  was 
shown  that  whenever  crude  petroleum  reached  an  average 
price  of  thirty-five  cents  per  gallon  in  the  American 
markets,  the  coal  oil  distiller  could  aflford  to  resume  busi- 
ness. It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  any  claims  of  patentees 
which  seek  to  monopolize  the  distillation  of  coal  for  oil 
making,  will  be  enforced,  should  the  time  again  arrive 
when  such  distillation  can  be  profitably  carried  on. 

The  progress  of  discovery  in  this  case  has  been  gradual. 
It  has  been  carried  on  by  the  labors,  not  of  one  mind,  but 
of  many,  so  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  discover  to  whom 
the  greatest  credit  is  due.  It  is,  notwithstanding,  just  to 
admit,  that  from  the  facts  disclosed  in  the  before-mentioned 
patents,  a  spirit  of  inquiry  was  aroused,  and  experiments 
were  multiplied. 

The  introduction  into  common  use  in  America  of  oils 
distilled  from  coal,  bitumen,  and  ipcidentally  petroleum, 
was  accomplished  by  the  North  American  Kerosene  Gas 
Light  Company  of  New  York,  in  the  early  part  of  1854. 
This  Company  was  formed  to  work  under  the  Kerosene 
Patents,  and  Messrs.  John  11.  Austen  and  George  W.  Aus- 


KEROSENE. 


u 


ten,  the  agents  of  the  Company,  first  sold  the  oil  produced 
by  the  patentee  at  the  Company's  works  on  Newtown 
Creek,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  under  the  name  of  "  kero- 
sene." The  Messrs.  Austen  found  great  difficulty  in 
selling  the  oil.  The  refining  process  was  not  so  well  un- 
derstood at  that  time  as  at  present,  and  the  odor  was  not 
agreeable.  The  beauty  of  the  light  obtained  from  it,  how- 
ever, was  sufficient  to  gradually  overcome  the  objection  on 
the  score  of  odor.  Its  supposed  explosiveness  was  also 
urged  against  it  by  those  interested  in  the  caraphene  and 
burning  fluids.  These  two  latter  are  very  explosive  com- 
pounds, but  that  far'  was  overlooked  by  the  opponents  of 
kerosene,  which,  as  li  was  originally  manufactured  by  Dr. 
Gesuer,  was  quite  as  safe  an  article  as  ordinary  whale 
oil. 

There  was  a  serious  drawback  to  the  general  use  of  kero- 
sene in  the  want  of  a  cheap  and  proper  lamp  in  which  to 
burn  it.  To  John  H.  Austen,  Esq.,  is  due  the  credit  of 
supplying  this  very  necessary  adjunct  to  the  coal-oil  busi- 
ness. Tiis  gentleman  found  in  Vienna  a  burner  which 
was  suited  to  light  hydrocarbon  oils,  and  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Vienna  burner  "  brought  it  into  use.  This  burner  has 
formed  the  model  upon  which  great  numbers  of  patents  have 
been  framed.  It  has  not  always  been  improved  by  inventors. 

W^ith  a  view  to  a  ^proper  arrangement  of  the  subject, 
various  materials  capable  of  yielding  oil  by  distillation  will 
be  considered  in  regular  order. 

The  chief  of  these  are  petroleum,  bitumen  or  asphaltum, 
coals,  bituminous  shales,  sands  and  clays,  peat,  caoutchouc, 
gutta  percha,  and  the  tars  produced  in  the  manufacture  of 
stearine. 

When  organic  bodies  are  exposed  to  heat,  with  the  free 
admission  of  air,  they  undergo  combustion.    The  greater 


12 


EFrECTB  OP  HEAT. 


[f    ■ 


part  of  the  carbon  is  expelled  in  smoke,  or  in  carbonic 
acid,  the  hydrogen  in  water,  or  carburetted  hydrogen,  and 
the  nitrogen,  if  any  be  present,  escapes  in  some  compound 
of  ammonia ;  but  if  those  substancfes  have  heat  applied  to 
them  in  close  vessels,  there  are  new  results,  and  a  greater 
interchange  of  elements  takes  place. 

In  1730  Hales  distilled  substances  to  discover  if  they 
contained  air.  In  1773  the  same  gentleman  and  Dr.  "Wat- 
son obtained  gas  from  coals,  and  in  1786  Lord  Dundonald 
burned  the  gas  that  arose  from  his  coke  ovens  at  the  ends 
of  iron  pipes  for  the  amusement  of  his  friends.  In  1792 
Mr.  Murdoch  commenced  lighting  buildings  with  coal  gas, 
and  since  that  period  gas  lighting  has  been  extended  to 
every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Besides  the  gas  employed  for 
illumination,  it  was  thus  early  observed,  that  other  gases 
and  oils  were  produced  by  the  distillation  of  coals.  The 
discovery  of  coal  oils  is  therefore  as  old,  if  not  older,  than 
the  discovery  of  coal  gas,  and  cannot  now  be  justly  claimed 
by  any  living  man.  ' 

The  discovery  of  coal  oils  has  led,  no  doubt,  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  value  of  petroleum,  and  those  bituminous 
substances  most  resembling  it. 

When  substances  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  are  submitted  to  dry  distillation,  the  first  effect  is 
to  remove  oxygen  from  the  body  in  tlie  form  of  carbonic 
acid,  or  water.  After  the  oxygen  has  been  removed  car- 
bon and  hydrogen  escape,  as  carburetted  hydrogen,  or 
olefiant  gas.  If  some  of  the  acids  are  distilled  they  lose 
oxygen  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  are 
converted  into  new  acids.  Organic  acids  distilled  with 
strong  bases  part  with  the  elements  of  carbonic  acid,  which 
uniting  with  the  base  and  the  acid,  minus  the  carbonic 
acid,  comes  over  in  the  form  of  a  new  product. 


baiiiJuL' 


EFFECTS  OF  HEAT. 


18 


If  a  quantity  of  coals  be  placed  in  a  suitable  retort,  with 
a  condensing  apparatus  attached,  and  heat  be  gently  and 
gradually  applied  thereto,  the  first  result  will  be  the  escape 
of  water  in  the  form  of  vapor,  or  steam,  and  frequently 
mixed  with  an  extremely  light,  volatile,  and  inflammable 
hydro-carbon,  which  is  but  partially  condensable  into  a 
spirit,  or  oil.  The  hygroscopic  water  contained  in  the  coal 
appears  in  the  form  of  vapor,  sometimes  mixed  with  car- 
bonic acid,  and  if  the  coal  contained  nitrogen  ammonia  ia 
among  the  products.  Then  as  the  heat  is  increased  a  series 
of  oils  of  different  specific  gravities  are  condensed,  t|^ 
lightest  or  first  distilled  having  the  character  of  a  spirit 
rather  than  an  oil ;  finally,  when  the  heat  has  been  raised 
to  750**  or  800^  Fah,,  gas,  free  carbon,  and  a  number  of 
pyrogenoua  substances  appear,  known  as  dead  oil,  which 
mixes  mechanically  with  the  aqueous  products,  aAd  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  vessel.  Throughout  the 
distillation  more  or  less  water,  formed  by  the  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  present,  continues  to  flow.  Usually  in  proper 
retorts  the  oils  will  all  distil  over  at  a  temperature  of  750® 
Fah.  A  higher  degree  of  heat  produces  permanent  gases 
from  any  volatile  matter  that  may  remain  in  the  charge ; 
but  besides  the  elements  before-mentioned,  coal  frequently 
contains  sulphur  and  other  minerals,  which,  by  entering 
into  new  combinations  during  the  distillation,  yield  other 
compounds,  the  modus  operandi  of  whose  formation  is  not 
well  understood.  In  the  retort  there  remains  a  quantity 
of  fixed  carbon,  or  coke,  united  to  the  ash,  which  usually 
consists  of  silica,  alumina,  lime,  and  the  oxides  of  manga- 
nese and  iron. 

The  results  here  described  are  greatly  modified  by  the 
kind  of  coals  used,  the  degree  of  heat  applied,  and  the 
mode  by  which  the  oleaginous  vapors  are  Condensed.    The 


14 


EFFECTS  OF  HEAT. 


I 


II 


shape  of  the  retort,  the  weight,  or  thickness  of  the  charge, 
and  the  position  and  size  of  the  discharge-pipe,,  also  have 
an  influence  over  the  yield  of  oil,  and  the  time  required 
for  its  production. 

In  general,  coals  which  yield  the  greatest  amount  of 
volatile  matters,  exclusive  of  hygroscopic  moisture,  afford 
the  most  oils,  and  estimates  are  often  formed  of  their  value 
by  a  simple  test  of  the  weight  of  matter  expelled  by  the 
application  of  a  moderate  degree  of  heat.  The  test,  how- 
ever, is  often  delusive,  as  some  coals  expel  much  more  free 
C|fbon  during  the  distillation  than  others,  and  the  sulphur 
contained  in  coal  adds  nothing  to  the  oil,  while  it  consti- 
tutes a  part  of  its  volatile  products.  Nor  does  such  a  test 
afford  much  information  regarding  the  quality  of  the  oils 
a  given  quantity  of  coal  will  supply.  A  long  smoky 
flame  is  indicative  of  much  free  carbon,  a  shorter  and  more 
luminous  flame  denotes  that  there  will  be  much  fixed  car- 
bon in  the  coke.  Some  varieties  of  coals  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  gas,  as  their  chief  products 
by  heat  are  carburetted  and  bicarburetted  hydrogen  ;  such 
coals  do  not  alwavs  contribute  the  most  oils. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  the  manufacturer  of 
coal  or  petroleum  oils  to  know  the  quality  as  well  as  the 
quantity  of  the  oils  any  one  material  will  afford.  For  this 
the  only  reliable  test  is  to  submit  the  material  to  dry  dis- 
tillation, and  the  whole  process  by  which  the  oils  are 
purified. 

It  will  be  seen  hereafter  that  coals,  coal  shales,  asphal- 
tums,  petroleums,  and  other  bituminous  substances,  yield 
not  one,  two,  or  three  oils ;  but  series  of  homologous  com- 
pounds. Some  members  of  these  series  are  of  high  specific 
gravity,  some  of  low,  or,  as  the  oils  are  called,  heavy  and 
light ;  the  light  being  eupion,  or  benzole,  the  heavy  the 


PETROLEUM,  iilTUMEN,  ETC. 


Id 


oil  pressed  from  paraffin,  and,  finally,  the  solid,  as  paraffin, 
naphthalin,  etc. 

These  several  series  of  hydrocarbons  are  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  heat  employed  in  their  distillations,  the  con- 
densers, and,  finally,  their  mode  of  treatment.  Again, 
there  are  not  two  kinds  of  coal  that  will  give  the  same 
products,  even  by  the  same  modes  of  manufacture.  Some 
yield  much  light,  others  much  heavy  oil ;  some  send  over 
much  paraffin,  and  what  are  called  by  manufacturers 
impurities,  namely,  naphthalin,  carbolic  acid,  copnomor, 
etc.,  ever  attending  the  distillates. 

Few  common  bituminous  coals  can  be  successfully 
emjMoyed  in  the  oil  manufactory ;  tlieir  distillates  abound 
in  creosote,  or  carbolic  acid,  and  their  purification  is  expen- 
sive. The  modes  of  refining  the  oils  from  petroleum,  coal, 
bitumen,  and  other  bituminous  substances,  will  be  given 
in  their  proper  places.  For  the  present  the  author  will 
confine  himself  as  much  as  possible  to  the  descriptioa  of 
the  various  substances  capable  of  yielding  oil  by  distilla- 
tion, beginning  with  petroleum. 


16 


PETROLEUM  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Petroleum  of  the  United  Stntea — Tlieories  as  to  its  Origin. — Geological  Fea- 
tures of  the  Petroleum  Regions. — Petroleum  Wells.— Boring  for  Petroleum. 
— Boring  Tools  and  Machinery. — Petroleum  of  Canada,  South  America, 
Trinidad,  Barbadoes,  Burmah,  eta 

Although  petroleum  has  been  known  to  exist  in  vaiious 
parts  of  the  world  for  centuries,  it  was  not  until  the  oils 
derived  from  the  distillation  of  coal  and  bitumen  had  been 
brought  into  use,  that  the  attention  of  the  business  world 
was  attracted  by  it.  Now  that  its  value  is  becoming  appre- 
ciated, the  petroleum-producing  portions  of  the  globe  are 
being  rapidly  explored,  and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that 
discoveries  even  more  wonderful  than  those  of  the  past 
seven  years  may  reward  the  efforts  of  those  who  are  ven- 
turing time  and  means  in  searching  for  this  very  important 
hvdrocarbon. 

The  petroleum  wells  of  the  United  States  claim,  from 
their  number  and  productiveness  at  the  present  time,  the 
chief  place  in  a  work  devoted  to  the  history  and  chemical 
treatment  of  petroleum  and  coal  oils. 

Petroleum  has  long  been  known  to  exist  in  the  State  of 
New  York.  Under  the  name  of  *'  Seneca  Oil"  which  it 
derived  from  an  Indian  tribe,  petroleum  was  formerly  col- 
lected in  Chautauque  County,  N.  Y.,  and  in  Crawford 
County,  Pennsylvania,  and  sold  for  medicinal  purposes. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  country  lying  beyond  the 
AUeghanies  in  New  York,  may  yet  be  found  rich  in  petro- 
leum. Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  oil  producing  state. 
Ohio  is  also  yielding  largely.    West  Virginia  has  produced 


PETROLEUM. 


17 


a  large  quantity.  Kentucky  bids  fair  to  equal  her  sister 
states  in  the  petroleum  production.  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Missouri,  and  Texas,  are  known  to  contain  petro- 
leum springs.  Sour  Pond,  so  called  from  the  circumstance 
that  during  part  of  the  year  the  waters  are  acid  to  the  taste, 
is  a  pitch  lake  resembling  that  of  Trinidad.  It  is  between 
Beaumont  and  Liberty  in  the  latter  state. 

Arkansas  and  Missouri  are  rich  in  bituminous  sands, 
shales,  and  clays.  Petroleum  has  been  found  in  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Michigan. 

From  recent  explorations,  it  would  seem  that  California 
is  capable  of  yielding  an  enormous  quantity  of  petroleum. 
The  existence  of  asphaltum  and  semi-solid  bitumen  at 
Santa  Barbara  in  Southern  California,  had  been  known 
since  1792,  but  no  generally  published  account  of  the 
extent  of  the  deposit  was  had  until  its  survey  by  Professor 
Silliman  in  1864. 

It  has  afforded  much  interest  to  the  geologists  and 
chemists  of  the  day,  to  ascertain  from  the  geology  of  the 
petroleum  districts,  the  origin  of  petroleum  itself. 

Were  the  petroleum  now  produced  by  the  various  wells 
of  the  same  quality,  and  the  strata  from  which  they  are 
derived  of  the  same  character,  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
reasoning  out  a  theory  of  their  origin  would  be  very  much 
removed.  But  even  the  petroleums  of  the  United  States 
alone  differ  materially,  as  will  be  hereafter  seen. 

The  theory  that  the  petroleum  of  Canada,  which  occurs 
in  the  older  Silurian  rocks,  is  derived  from  the  decomposi 
tion  of  vast  numbers  of  marine  animals,  is  not  an  unrea- 
sonable one.  In  distillation  the  Canada  petroleums  yield 
acroleine,  an  oil  which  is  obtained  from  animal  oils  and  fats. 
The  vapor  of  acroleine  is  very  pungent,  and  attacks  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  causing  great 


1.8 


ORIGIN  or  PETROLEUM. 


initation.    Fish  oils  yield  it  by  distillation.    It  is  not 
found  in  the  petroleums  of  Pennsylvania. 

It  is  remarked  by  a  learned  writer  of  the  day,  that  "  the 
transformation  of  woody  fibre  into  oil  is  a  chemical  change, 
taking  place  always  out  of  contact  with  atmospheric  air 
and  usually  under  water,  but  by  no  means  necessarily  con- 
nected with  any  particular  geological  period,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  coal  epoch,  with  which  many  intelligent  people 
associate  it." 

During  the  passage  of  vegetable  substances  into  coal, 
there  is  an  escape  of  vast  quantities  of  carbon  combined 
with  hydrogen.  It  is  only  necessary  that  the  gases  of  these 
elements  should  be  condensed  to  produce  hydrocarbon  oils. 
The  operation  is  .a  decomposing  and  a  combining  one,  and 
the  new  combinations  formed  during  the  transmutation  of 
wood  into  coal,  have  a  close  analogy  to  those  produced 
during  the  distillation  of  wood  without  the  admission  of 
,  air.  The  gases  generated  in  strata  of  coal  and  coal  strata, 
are  always  under  great  pressure,  which  tends  to  their  con- 
densation and  consequent  formation  of  oil. 

That  coal  has  been  derived  from  vegetables  is  undoubted. 
Peat  and  wood  are  found  to  pass  by  insensible  shades  into 
lignite,  lignite  into  compact  bituminous  coal,  and  the  end 
of  the  transformation  appears  in  the  anthracite,  from  which 
nearly  all  the  hydrogen  has  been  expelled  and  carbon 
remains. 

From  the  expulsion  of  oxygen,  carbon,  and  hydrogen 
from  wood,  and  the  variety  which  it  presents  until  it  forma 
true  coal,  heat  has  not  been  absolutely  necessary,  although 
it  has  doubtless  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  connexion 
with  those  chemical  changes  ever  going  forward  in  the 
earth. 
^  The  condensation  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  producing  oil , 


THEORIES. 


19 


and  the  fact  of  strata  of  coal  and  shale  before  they  reach 
the  maximum  of  carbonization  giving  out  these  elements  in 
great  quantities  under  pressure,  and  the  tendency  of  these 
gases  and  oils  to  diffuse  themselves,  are  fair  reasons  for 
finding  the  oil  in  formations  bearing  no  tiaces  of  vege- 
tables. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  regarding  the  origin 
of  petroleum.  By  one  writer  it  is  supposed  that  "the 
petroleum  of  Pennsylvania  arises  from  the  distillation  by 
subterranean  heat  of  the  hydrocarbon  agents  resident  in  the 
carbonaceous  strata  underlying  the  oil  region."  By  another, 
"  that  the  great  beds  of  anthracite  coal  of  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  southerly  slope  of  the  Alleghanies,  are  merely  the 
residuary  coke,  as  it  Vere,  of  a  distilling  process,  which  has 
converted  their  bituminous  matter  into  oil,  and  distributed 
it  by  some  convulsion  of  the  earth  through  the  formation 
beyond  the  mountain  range." 

So  far,  however,  as  research  has  gone,  it  has  failed  to 
present  a  theory  acceptable  to  all.  It  must  be  agreed,  how- 
ever, that  all  petroleum  could  not  have  had  precisely  the 
same  origin,  and  that  a  theory  which  might  fairly  apply  to 
the  origin  of  the  petroleum  of  one  district,  would  not  at  all 
apply  to  that  of  another. 

In  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  the  petroleum  is  found  :n  the 
Devonian  formation.  In  Canada,  it  is  found  in  the  Silu- 
rian limestone.  In  Pennsylvania,  alternate  beds  of  the 
Utica  slate  and  sandstone  are  pierced  by  the  boring  tools. 
The  evidences  of  great  disturbance  of  the  strata  are  nu- 
merous. In  West  Virginia,  they  are  seen  in  the  anticli- 
nal ridges  which  traverse  the  petroleum  region.  At  the 
base  of  these  ridges,  and  where  the  surface  indicates  the 
greatest  disturbance  beneath,  the  petroleum  wells  are  usu- 
ally located. 


20 


PETROLEUM  WELLS. 


^^f^ 


In  the  sandstone  beds  there  arc  large  cavities  filled  with 
petroleum,  gas,  and  water,  and  when  these  are  reached  by 
the  boring  tools,  there  is  a  great  and  violent  escape  of  their 
contents  until  they  have  become  exhausted.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  two  wells  near  together  will  enter  the  same  cre- 
vice, and  either  the  sooner  exhaust  the  supply  of  petroleum, 
or  drain  it  awav,  the  one  from  the  other. 

As  the  formation  of  petroleum  in  the  earth  is  a  slow  pro- 
cess, it  is  not  probable  that  the  supply  can  Heep  pace  with 
the  demand  made  upon  it  where  the  wells  are  sent  down  too 
near  together.  None  of  the  wells  have  continued  to  flow 
for  any  great  length  of  time. 

PETROLEUM    WELE8. 

The  most  productive  are  situated  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Venango,  Crawford,  Clarion,  and 
adjoining  counties.  A  large  area  of  "country  between  Pitts- 
burg and  Lake  Erie,  and  that  portion  of  it  drained  by  the 
Alleghany  Eiver  and  its  tributaries,  Oil  Creek,  French 
Creek,  Tionesta  Creek,  and  smaller  streams,  bas  been  found 
to  yield  petroleum.  Beaver  County,  Pennsylvania,  near 
the  Ohio  River,  has  also  become  known  as  an  oil-producing 
region.  The  locality  known  as  Smith's  Ferry  has  been 
successfully  explored  for  oil.  In  West  Virginia  the  coun- 
ties of  Pleasant,  Ritchie,  Wood,  and  Wirt,  comprise  the 
oil  region.  They  are  near  or  bordering  upon  the  Ohio 
River,  and  are  drained  by  the  Little  Kanawha  and  Goose, 
French,  Bull,  Horseneek,  Calf,  and  Stilwell  Creeks.  The 
Ohio  petroleum  district  is  principally  in  Washington,  No- 
ble, and  Morgan  Counties,  on  the  Great  and  Little  Musk- 
ingum, and  on  various  other  streams,  such  as  Duck  Creek, 
Paupaw,  Wolf,  and  Federal  Creeks.  In  Indiana  petroleum 
is  found  on  Little  Blue  River,  in  Crawford  County.    In 


PETROLEUM  WELLS. 


M 


the  other  States  before  mentioned,  petroleum  wells  arc  in 
progress.  The  California  and  Kentucky  petroleum  regions 
will  no  doubt  soon  add  greatly  to  the  supply. 

Tlio  introduction  of  petroleum  into  market  took  place 
about  throe  years  after  the  oils  obtained  from  coal  had  been 
in  uao.  Professor  Silliman  analysed  a  sample  in  1854.  An 
oil  for  lamps,  called  Carbon  oil,  was  introduced  in  the  New 
York  market,  by  A.  C.  Ferris,  Esq.,  in  1857.  It  was  at 
first  sold  after  being  distilled,  but  not  treated,  but  was 
afterwards  refined.  It  was  procured  from  an  old  salt  well 
at  TarcMitura,  on  the  Alleghany,  not  far  from  Pittsburg, 
when;  it  was  found  in  such  quantities  as  seriously  to  inter- 
fere with  the  salt  manufacture. 

The  boring  of  petroleum  wells  was  begun  by  Mr.  E.  L. 
Drake,  who  began  a  well  at  Titusville,  on  Oil  Creek,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1858.  Mr,  Drake  was  at  first  not  successful 
in  finding  the  petroleum  at  the  depth  which  it  was  sup- 
posed was  sufficient,  but  persevered,  and  at  last  struck  a 
fine  vein  of  petroleum. 

Since  that  time  the  business  of  procuring  it  has  become 
one  of  the  most  extensive  in  America.  More  than  four 
hundred  Petroleum  Companies  have  been  formed.  Many 
of  these  companies  may  not  succeed  in  their  efforts  to  ob- 
tain oil,  and  many  of  them  may  never  practically  set  about 
the  business  of  sinking  oil  wells,  but  enough  will  remain 
to  develop  thoroughly  the  oil  region  of  the  United  States.* 

The  estimated  yield  of  petroleum  at  the  present  time  by 


*  Rymarknblo  success  has  in  some  instnnccs  rewarded  the  ontcrpriso  of 
retroU'nn\  Companies.  Among  tlicm  may  bo  named  the  McKiiilcy  Oil  Com- 
pany of  Now  York.  Tiiis  Company  paid  twenty-two  per  cent,  in  dividends 
upon  a  capital  stock  of  $2r)0,000  witliin  a  period  of  four  montlis.  The 
fronlispioco  to  this  work  represents  a  view  of  a  portion  of  the  Company's 
protwrty. 


22 


EXPORT  or  PETROLEUM. 


the  oil  wcIIb  of  the  United  States  is  6000  barrels,  or  240,000 
gallons  per  day.  Though  certain  wells  have  for  a  .short 
period  yielded  1000  barrels  or  40,000  gallons  per  day,  and 
even  more  than  that  quantity,  the  average  yield  of  all  will 
not  be  njueh  over  6  barrels,  or  200  gallons  per  day.  An 
oil  well  yielding  100  barrels,  or  4,000  gallons  per  day,  is 
not  a  common  thing  to  find  in  the  oil  region ;  half  that 
quantity  would  be  considered  a  very  good  yield. 

THE  EXPOIIT  or  PETROLEUM. 


The  following  statement  shows  the  export  of  petroleum 
from  the  United  States  to  all  parts  of  the  world : 


From  Mew  York  to 
Liverpool, 
London, 
Glasjjow,  etc. 
Bristol, 
Fulmouth,  E., 
Grangemouth,  E , 
Cork,  etc., 
Bowling,  E., 
Ilavro, 
Marseilles, 
Cottp, 
Diml<irk, 
Dieppe, 
Rouen, 
Antwerp, 
Bremen, 
Amsterdam, 
Hamburgh, 
Rotterdam, 
Gottenburg, 
Cronstadt, 
Cadi'.!  and  Malnga, 


18M 

18«8. 

Osllons. 

Onllons, 

734,  <  65 

2,150,851 

].W0,710 

2,670,331 

308,402 

414,913 

29,134 

71,912 

3ir,,402 

623,176 

425,334 

8,310,362 

1,532,257 

87,104 

2,324,017 

1,774,890 

1,982,075 

1,167,893 

4,800 
232  803 

79.581 

46,000 

143,046 

4,140,821 

2,092,974 

971,905 

i/:;..V'04 

77,041 

■„J6 

1,180,080 

1,446,155 

532,920 

757,240 

38,813 

400,370 

88,009 

55,074 

33,284 

r^rr 


IXPORT  or  PKTROLEr\r. 


28 


TiurrftgoitA  And  AliciuiM, 

BanH>loita, 

Gibraltiu-, 

Oporto, 

Palermo, 

Genu*  auJ  Loghori\, 

Tritftito,  . 

AK'xiuulrift,  EgJ'pt, 

LLslion, 

Cannry  IslondH, 

Maileirn, 

Bilboa, 

China  anil  Easl-Indio!*, 

Alrion, 

Australia, 

Otago,  N.  Z., 

Siilney,  JT.  S.  W., 

Braxil,     . 

Mexico, 

Cuba, 

Argoniluo  Ropublic, 

CiiuUpino  Uopublic, 

Chili,       . 

PtMU, 

Bril;>ih  Ilomluras, 
British  Gniana, 
Brititih  Wost-InJioa, 
British  N.  Atn.  Colonies 
Dauiuh  Wt>st-In»lit»i», 
iHitch  Wo3t-Indio3, 
Vronch  Wost-hulios, 
Uayli, 

Central  Ainerioa,     . 
Voneznola, 
Npw-Granada, 
Porto  Hjco,     . 

Total  gallona, 


10,823 

33,000 

25,500 

6«j,lHl 

308,450 

17,474 

2,339 

7,iw;) 

57,115 

635.121 

390,^74 

105,176 

3,000 

4,000 

107,195 

64,062 

3,353 

5,125 

4(IU 

2,500 

34,388 

36,942 

25,105 

12,J3tt 

377,884 

-  <4,10U 

10,810 

5,500 

97,880 

4. '.,012 

149,070 

let  152 

112,980 

69,  '81 

418,034 

350,4.56 

20,260 

24,470 

78,552 

117,026 

92,550 

60,55a 

109,061 

250,407 

6,072 

440 

7,881 

15,104 

70,976 

60,931 

28,902 

16,095 

8,463 

31,r,03 

26,038 

12,143 

10,020 

9,104 

7,088 

12,064 

993 

456 

28,583 

15,455 

57,490 

107,837 

20,020 

59,439 

21,288,499         19,647,604 


24 


SECTION  OF  PETROLEUM  WELL. 


i 


ill 


SoiL. 
OF* 


laOFJ 


'anyone 
25  Ft- 


Slate 
laOFt 


dstono 


SMo 
125Ffr 


Section  of  Petrolonm  Well,  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania, 


MODE  OF  LEADING  OIL  LANDS. 


25 


The  following  is  the  quantity  exported  from  other  ports, 
January  1  to  December  31 : 


1864. 

1868. 

From  Boston, 

Gallons 

1,096,308 

2,043,431 

From  Philaddphia, 

(( 

7^760,148 

6,595,738 

From  Baltimore,     . 

i 

929,071 

915,896 

From  Portland, 

u 
tt 

70,762 

342,082 

Total 

10,457,188 

8,703,117 

Total  export  from  U.  S., 

u 

31,755,687 

28,250,721 

Same  time  in  1^62, 

« 

gallons 

10,887,701 

The  diagram  opposite  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
rocks  pierced  by  the  o'^  wells  and  their  relative  situation. 
The  depths  at  which  the  sandstone  is  met  vary,  as  also  does 
the  thickness  of  the  slate.  The  third  sand  rock  of  the  oil 
region  is  found  to  be  the  most  fruitful  in  oil.  In  this  rock 
the  greatest  flowing  wells  have  been  found,  though  oil  fre- 
quently accompanies  the  boring  all  the  way  from  the  first 
sand  rock.  The  usual  depth  at  which  oil  is  found  is  at  400 
to  600  feet.  Many  deeper  wells  are  in  progress  of  boring. 
One  is  stated  to  have  gone  down  1200  feet. 


MODE   OF  LEASING  OIL  LANDS. 

In  most  cases  the  landowner  leases  for  30  years  the  right 
to  raise  the  oil,  and  such  right  of  way  as  may  be  necessary, 
for  a  royalty  of  from  one-tenth  to  one-half  the  oil.  In 
certain  cases  the  landowner  also  receives  a  bonus  for  the 
lease,  amounting  to  from  $5,000  to  $10,000. 

The  lessee  binds  himself  to  begin  operations  within  sixty 
days.  The  lease  is  forfeited  if  the  lessee  fails  to  prosecute  the 
work,  either  to  success  or  abandonment,  within  a  reasonable 
time  after  beginning. 


26 


VALUE  OF  OIL  LANIJS;- 


Some  landowners  prefer  to  receive  a  certain  sum  for  the 
lease,  paid  upon  its  delivery. 

The  value  of  petroleum  lands  upon  which  indications  of 
petroleum  have  been  found,  is  from  $200  to  $1,000  per 
acre  in  Western  Virginia. 

In  Venango  County,  Pennsylvania,  the  heart  of  the  oil 
region,  tho  lain  is  upon  the  creeks  are  worth  $1,000  per  acre. 
In  other  places  not  yet  well  known  as  good  oil  localities,  the 
price  per  acre  is  from  $100  to  $300. 

The  i>rices  here  mentioned  are  those  ordinarily  quoted. 
There  are  instances  where  an  acre  of  ground  in  the  oil 
region  has  sold  for  a  far  greater  amount  than  any  sum  named. 

Previous  to  the  discovery  of  petroleum,  and  of  its  value, 
these  lands  were  worth  in  general  about  $20  per  acre,  and 
in  some  places  much  less. 

A  visit  to  the  oil  region  is  full  of  interest  to  most  per- 
sons. There  is  a  novelty  in  the  operations  of  the  oil  well 
sinker,  and  in  tho  various  phenomena  which  attend  his 
work,  which  is  attractive.  A  ride  down  Oil  Creek,  from 
Titusville  to  Oil  City,  though  usually  over  a  very  bad 
road,  repays  in  the  information  gained..  The  derricks  which 
in  some  places  on  the  flats  are  almost  as  numerous  as  the 
trees  originally  were,  give  a  peculiar  appearance  to  the 
landscape.  Evidences  of  great  industry  and  enterprise  are 
seen  in  the  steam  engines,  vats  (some  of  them  of  great 
capacity),  barrels,  boats  loaded  witli  oil  floating  down  the 
creek,  and  many  other  things  which  serve  to  make  up  life 
in  the  oil  region. 

The  usual  mode  of  transportation  of  the  oil  is  in  barrels 
of  40  gallons  each.  Recently  it  has  been  suggested,  that 
the  oil  could  be  forced  through  iron  {^ipes  frorA  such  parts 
as  were  at  great  distance  from  the  railway,  and  a  company 
has  been  formed  to  carry  out  the  enterprise.  ■ 


OIL  WELL  TOOLS. 


27 


SINKING  PETROLEUM  WELLS. 


The  site  of  the  proposed  well  being  selected,  a  frame  of 
timber  called  a  **  derrick,"  forty  feet  in 
height,  formed  of  four  posts  inclining  to- 
wards each  other  at  the  top,  set  upon  a  frame 
of  logs  eight  or  ten  feet  square  or  sunk 
into  the  ground,  is  erected  over  it  These 
derricks  arc  prominent  Objects  in  the  land- 
scape of  the  oil  region.  (See  Frontispiece 
and  vignette.)  At  the  top  of  the  derrick  is 
a  pulley  over  which  a  rope  is  passed  when 
the  boring  tools  or  tubing  are  to  be  hauled 
up.  A  steam-engine,  usually  of»six  or  ten 
horse  power,  is  placed  near  the  derrick,  and 
its  power  is  applied  by  means  of  a  belt 
from  the  fly-wheel  of  the  engine  to  a  large 
wheel  and  crank,  the  crank  giving  motion  to 
a  walkinoi;-beam,  at  the  end  of  which  borin» 
tools  or  pump  rods  arc  attached  as  may  be 
required.  The  lower  part  of  the  derrick  is 
sometimes  closed  in  with  boards.  The 
driving  of  the  soil-pipe.  Fig.  1,  is  the  first 
thing  done.  This  pipe  is  four  inches  in  dia- 
meter, made  in  ten  feet  lengths,  fitted  at  the 
ends,  and  driven  by  means  of  a  heavy  block 
of  wood,  as  in  pile  driving.  The  lengths 
follow  each  other  in  succession  until  the  rock 
bed  is  reached.  This  is  sometimes  thirty 
feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  soil  pipe  has 
to  penetrate  earth,  sand,  and  loose  slate,  &c. 


The  drilling  tools  are  attached  to  each  other 


Fio.  1. 


11- 


28 


OIL  WELL  TOOLSv 


by  means  of  a  screw  connection  in  the  following  order :  Bit, 
Fig.  2,  or  Reamer  Fig.  3  ;  Auger  Stem  Fig.  4 ;  Jars  Fig.  5 ; 
Sinker  Bar,  similar  to  Auger  Stem,  though  not  so  long; 
Eope  socket  Fig.  6,  to  which  the  rope  is  attached  atono  end 
and  at  the  other  to  the  Temper  Screw,  Fig.  9.  The  annexed 
diagram  gives  the  position  of  the  engine,  walking  beam,  and 
connection,  as  they  are  commonly  arranged,  together  with 
the  relative  positions  of  the  boring  tools  when  in  use.  Tlio 
Temper  Screw  is  attached  to  a  rope  which  connects  with 
the  end  of  the  walking-beam,  and  serves  to  regulate  the 
descent  of  the  drill,  without  the  inconvenience  of  lengtlien- 
ing  the  rope  at  short  intervals.  The  Sinker  Bar  gives 
weight  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Jars,  which  slide  together, 
and  the  Auger  Stem  and  Bit  aflbrd  weight  to  do  thcf  drill- 
ing. The  downward  strpke  of  the  walking-beam  releases 
the  Auger  Stem  and  Bit  for  an  instant  as  the  Jars  slide 
together,  and  they  fall  the  distance  necessary  to  penetrate 
the  rock,  and  are  again  lifted  by  the  Jars  on  the  upward 
stroke,  falling  again  as  the  stroke  descends. 

The  soil-pipe  is  cleared  of  its  contents  by  the  tools  and 
Sand  Pump,  Fig.  7,  which  is  a  hollow  tube  with  a  valve  at 
its  lower  end.  This  permits  it  to  fill  with  the  finely  pul- 
verized detritus  made  by  the  drill,  and  it  is  alternately 
lowered  into  and  raised  from  the  well  and  emptied  until 
the  well  is  clear  for  the  tools  again.  When  the  soil-pipe  is 
clear,  drilling  the  rock  is  begun  in  the  way  described.  The 
weight  of  an  ordinary  set  of  tools  is  900  to  1000  lbs.  A 
circular  motion  is  given  to  them  by  means  of  a  stout 
lever  passed  through  the  rope  near  the  Temper  Screw  at 
the  top  of  the  well,  and  moved  around  gradually  by  one 
of  the  workmen.  The  Reamer  is  used  to  enlarge  the  hole 
made  by  the  Bit. 

Occasionally  in  drilling,  the  tools  will  enter  a  crevice  in 


i 


tV^.'^J",  '  -i-j. 


•,  f  .-■^  *Tf/M.tt^ 


:•*_%:.;.. 


OIL  WELL  TOOLS. 


29 


tU 


-II 


Fio.  2. 


Fio.  8.  Fio.  4. 


Fiu.  6. 


\ 


Fio.  «. 


Fig.  T. 


iU 


9& 


OIL  WELL  TOOLS. 


Fit.  12. 


Fio.  6. 


Fig.  9. 


FiQ.  10.  FiQ.  11. 


Fw.  18. 


OIL  WELL  TOOLS  AND  MACHINERY. 


31 


I 
in 


I 


pqL 


X 


c 
O 


a 

n 


ajitji£emii.Deu 


Muflilnery  nsed  In  Boring  Petroltutn  VTella. 

the  rock  and  become  wedged  so  tiglitly 
that  they  are  often  lost  for  want  of  means 
to  extricate  them.  Numerous  appli- 
ances have  been  invented  to  extricate 
tools  that  have  become  fast.  The  Lazy 
Tongs,  Fig.  8,  is  one  of  these.  It  is  at- 
tached by  a  screw-joint  to  the  sinker 
bar  or  other  suitable  rod  of  iron,  and 
lowered  so  as  to  catch  tlie  end  of  the 
missing  tool  in  its  jaws.  It  is  said  by 
the  workmen  that  to  sink  one  or  two 
hundred  feet  is  comparatively  easy,  but 
that  at  four  hundred  feet  the  risk  of  loss 
of  tools  is  much  increased.  At  that 
depth  the  jar  of  the  falling  bit  and  Huger 
stem  is  not  nearly  so  perceptible  at  the 
top  of  the  well,  the  elastic  rope  taking 
it  up. 

The  well  having  been  sunk  to  the 
oil,  which  does  not  always  manifest 
itself  by  flowing,  it  is  tubed  with 
two-inch  wrought  iron  pipe,  Fig.  12, 


89 


OIL  PUMP,   SEED  BAG,    ETC. 


fastened  together  by  screw-joints,  in  ten  or  twelve  feet 
lengths. 

The  first  length  sent  down  is  the  brass  or  iron  cylinder 
which  constitutes  with  its  valves  the  Oil  Pump,  Fig.  11. 
This  is  the  same  size  as  the  well  tube,  and  has  at  the  bot- 
tom a  ball  valve  which  is  fitted  into  a  brass  plug  having  a 
screw  top.  The  pump-rods,  which  are  tough  wooden  rods 
fitted  together  by  iron  sleeves  and  screws,  connect  at  the 
lower  end  with  the  upper  valve  of  the  oil  pump,  which  has 
a  screw  socket  at  its  lower  end  so  that  it  can  be  lowered 
down  to  the  bottom  valve,  screwed  over  its  top,  and  pull  it 
up  when  necessary'.  The  dotted  lines  in  the  oil  pump. 
Fig.  11,  show  the  position  of  the  valves,  when  the  up  stroke 
is  at  ill  highest  pitch.  "When  the  oil  pump  is  adjusted,  the 
required  lengths  of  tubing  are  connected  one  by  one,  and 
the  tube  is  lowered  to  its  place.  In  some  wells,  a  strainer 
of  wire  cloth  is  placed  around  the  lower  part  of  the  oil 
pump.  The  oil  pump  does  not  rest  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  well  so  as  to  close  its  lower  end.  The  pump-rods  work 
through  a  Stuffing  Box,  Fig.  13,  which  is  screwed  to  the 
top  of  the  well  tube.  From  its  upper  orifice,  the  oil  is  led 
by  other  tubes  into  vats,  which  are,  in  some  cases,  very 
large.  In  these  vats  the  oil  is  settled ;  the  water  being 
drawn  off,  and  the  oil  barrelled  for  market. 

To  prevent  communication  between  any  particular  por- 
tion of  the  well  and  the  pumping  tube,  a  bag  of  linseed, 
called  a  "  seed  bag,"  is  sent  down  to  the  required  place.  This 
bag,  encircling  the  tube,  soon  swells  by  the  water  which  is 
always  present,  and  forms  a  water-tight  joint  in  the  well. 
For  instance,  when  it  is  desirable  to  prevent  the  water  beds 
of  one  of  the  upper  rocks  from  flooding  the  oil  beds  of  the 
lower  strata,  the  seed-bag  is  inserted  below  where  the 
water  is  supposed  to  be,  and  prevents  it  from  reaching  the 


jr^^^^g^s^?;^' 


"^i^^" 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  BORING. 


33 


oil  pump  at  the  bottom  of  the  well.    For  drawing  the  tube, 
a  Swivel,  Fig.  10,  is  used.    It  screws  into  the  tube. 

The  whole  process  of  sinking  petroleum  wells  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  artesian  wells.  The  peculiar  requirements  of 
the  oil  wells  have,  'however,  made  their  sinking  a  work  of 
no  small  skill.  The  work  of  the  oil-well  borer  is  one 
requiring  great  patience  and  ingenuity.  He  works  beneath 
the  surface,  where  the  eye  cannot  perceive  the  causes  which 
impede  the  work.  He  has  but  the  narrow  bore  of  the  well 
in  which  to  operate,  and  cannot  at  a  glance  take  in  the 
whole  state  of  the  rocks  through  which  he  penetrates.  Ilia 
"indications"  of  petroleum  can  only  be  judged  of  by  his 
former  experience.  He  cannot  tell  to  a  certainty  that  he 
will  "strike  oil,"  though  the  sand  pump  may  bring  up 
traces  of  it  from  time  to  time.  Many  wells  afford  traces 
of  oil,  which  have  never  yet  reached  any  paying  quan- 
•  tity. 

"When  the  soil  is  not  deep,  a  circular  excavation  is  made 
down  to  the  rock  bed,  and  a  hollow  log,  or  "  gum."  as  it  ia 
called,  is  placed  in  it  on  one  end.  The  base  is  surrounded 
with  clay  to  prevent  the  influx  of  surface  water.  The 
seed  bag  is  also  used  to  keep  the  lower  part  of  the  well  free 
of  water.  The  cut  on  page  35  represents  one  of  these 
comparatively  shallow  wells  in  Western  Virginia.  It  ia 
150  feet  in  depth,  and  was  pumping  five  barrels  per  day  at 
the  time  of  the  author's  visit  in  1863. 

When  steam-engines  are  not  to  be  had  conveniently,  a 
spring  pole  is  used  to  give  the  proper  motion  to  the  boring 
tools.  It  is  worked  by  two  men,  while  another  turns  the 
lever  at  the  top  of  the  rope  and  gives  a  circular  motion  to 
the  bit  below. 

There  are  instances  in  which,  when  the  oil-well  sinker  ia 
80  fortunate  as  to  tap  a  reservoir  of  petroleum,  an  enormous 


M  IMPROVED   MODES  OF  BORING  AND   rUMl'lNQ. 


I  : 


flow  takes  place  for  a  time.  When  tliis  is  the  case  the  pump 
is  not  required.  OccasioniiUy  water  is  met  with  which 
flows  in  great  quantity  for  a  time. 

Many  improvements  in  drilling  and  j)umping  have  been 
suggested,  and  a  few  of  them  are  now  about  to  be  ajiplied. 
An  air-pump  is  used  at  some  plaees  to  force  a  current  of 
air  through  a  tube  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  well  tube, 
and  in  this  way  compel  the  oil  and  water  to  flow  out  with- 
out the  use  of  pumj)ing  rods  and  valves.  The  im])rovc- 
ments  in  drilling  are  designed  to  remove  the  detritus  with' 
out  the  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time  in  using  the  sand 
pump,  and  to  bore  the  well  with  an  auger  instead  ot  a  trip- 
hammer motion.  There  will  be  some  difficulty  iu  jiulvcr- 
izing  the  detritus  so  fine  as  to  float  it  away  on  a  current  of 
water,  which  one  invention  professes  to  do;  and  also  in 
working  a  long  tube  with  auger  action  without  torsion, 
which  is  the  intent  of  another  invention.  Under  favorable 
circumstances  the  wells  are  sunk  at  the  rate  of  six  and 
eight  feet  per  daj-.  There  arc  drilb'ig  machines  which 
can  bore  nine  feet  per  hour.  Tlic  difficulty  will  be  to  apply 
them  to  deep  wells. 

A  drilling  apparatus  has  been  invented  which  has  the 
bit  shank  hollow.  The  bit  itself  has  three  cutting  edges 
formed  by  stout  pieces  of  steel,  set  so  as  to  radiate  from  a 
common  centre.  In  the  angle  formed  by  these  pieces, 
which  are  three  inches  deep,  and  where  they  join  the  hol- 
low shank  or  stem,  there  are  brass  valves  which  permit  the 
detritus  to  enter  the  stem.  In  this  way  it  is  proposed  to 
combine  drill  and  sand-pump,  and  save  the  time  now  taken 
to  withdraw  the  tool  before  the  pump  is  inserted.  The 
above  drill  is,  with  its  auger  stem,  worked  by  a  wire  rope, 
which  is  passed  through  an  upright  shaft  at  the  top  of  the 
well.    This  shaft  is  furnished  with  set  screws  to  catch  the 


■i... 


COST  OF  PETROLEUM  WELL. 


8S 


r3S»r^L 


i ' 
V 


m 


t4*idSTViie 


i 


Petroleum  Wull,  Western  Vli-ylnliv.     Qoptli,  i:)()  feet. 

rope  and  regulate  its  feed.  An 
ingenious  arrangenicut  of  rollers, 
working  on  inclined  planes  with 
abrupt  i'alls,  gives  motion  to  the 
drill.  The  rope  is  passed  around 
a  drum,  and  is  rapidly  hoisted  by 
means  of  an  attachment  to  the  ma- 
ehinc.  The  drill  is  turned  in  the 
well  by  means  of  another  attach- 
ment which  turns  the  rope  half 
round,  back  and  forwards. 

The  cost  of  sinking  a  petroleum 
well  ()00  feet  is  estimated  at  $7,000, 
but  an  allowance  must  be  maile  for 
contingencies,  loss  of  tools,  etc. 

'Before  the  nature  of  petroleum 
and  its  inflammability  had  become 
known,  several   serious    accidents 


u.:.:iiCi\]!h  ^  ^i-'S'>L&^:-: ..  -:i"',v' .-..i--'-".'' 


so 


TXFLAMMAHIL1TY  oP  PETROLEUM. 


'ilil 


occurred  from  the  gas,  wliich  ncoompanies  tho  oil  in  vnst 
quantity  und  great  force,  taking  lire.  A  person  who  wit- 
iienaed  one  of  tliese  occurrences,  thus  described  it: 

"  Wo  had  gone  down  800   feet  and  were  expecting  to 

strilco  oil  at  any  moment.     We  went  up  to  the  shanty 

where  we  boarded  to  supper,  and  on  our  way  back  to  the 

well,  which  was  just  below  in  tho  hollow,  we  saw  tho  men 

hurrahing,   and  presently   a  jet  of  gas,   water,  and   oil, 

rushed  up,  fairly  lifting  the  tools  out  of  tho  well.     It  roared 

and   hissed  like  letting  oil'  steain   from   a   boiler.      The 

stream  seemed  to  me  to  mount  higher  than  the  derrick, 

which  was  forty  feet  high.     The  folks  in  the  neighborhood 

ran  down  with  their  shovels  and  dug  a  circular  trench 

around  the  well,  throwing  up  a  bank  to  catch  the  oil,  as 

we  had  not  expected  such  a  flood,  ami  had  no  large  tanks 

ready.    Tho  gas  mingled  witli  the  air,  and  for  a  distance 

about  the  well  the  air  Wi  a  almost  yellow  with  gas  and  spray 

of  oil  from  the  fountain. 

"  Mr.  li and  myself  looked  on  awhile  and  then  started 

to  go  to  the  engine-house  of  the  next  well  to  have  the  fires 
put  out.    Before  wo  reached  it,  however,  the  gas  took  fire 

like  a  flash  of  lightning.    Mr.  R ,  who  was  passing  a 

small  tank  of  oil,  was  covered  with  it  as  it  took  fire  also, 
and  I  lost  sight  of  him  for  -i  moment.  My  hair  and  face 
were  burned,  but  I  was  not  much  hurt.  The  sight  of  the 
burning  well  was  terrible.  A  great  fountain  of  fire,  it 
wavered  to  and  fro  as  the  wind  took  it,  and  threw  off  blaz- 
ing jets  of  oil.  The  poor  people  who  were  dipping  the  oil 
up  in  the  little  pool  around  the  well,  wilted  down  like 
leaves  when  the  forest  is  on  fire.  Some  tried  to  crawl  away, 
but  the  liquid  flame  ran  along  the  ground  and  caught  them. 
Several  hundred  barrels  of  oil  from  a  neighboring  well 
caught  fire.     Vast  clouds  of  smoke  ros^  from  the  burning 


....   . 


.    M^W:-Xl.''.Jci^,l---t.L,i*i:n 


-  !5  r  ■  --    <. 


VARIETIK8  OP  PETROLEUM. 


37 


well  nml  floatoil  o(T  over  the  IuIIh,  and  when  night  set  in 
the  olouda  and  hills  were  red  with  the  light  of  tiio  confla- 

grjition.     Mr.  R died  very  soon  after.     There  were  a 

great  many  Uvea  K>8t."        . 

Petn)leun»  should  always  be  handled  carefully.  Though 
it  will  not  ex|»lodo  by  being  iired,  yet  the  consequences 
resulting  from  the  sudden  inllaming  of  a  large  quantity  of 
ft  fluid  so  highly  combustible,  are  in  many  cases  nioro 
destructive  thaii  those  of  an  explosion  of  gunpowder. 

Keeently,  in  Philadelphia,  a  large  quantity  of  j)etrolcum, 
stored  in  a  street  near  some  dwelling-houses,  was  fired  at 
night.  The  store  yard  was  so  situated  that  the  oil  found 
an  ciu»y  descent  by  the  street,  and  flowed  down  it  in  a  river 
of  lliune,  running  into  the  cellars  and  setting  the  houses 
on  tire  with  the  rapidity  of  a  train  of  gun])owder. 

In  warm  weather  there  is  a  considerable  volatilization  of 
the  lighUT  portions  of  petroleum.  These  will  fire  instantly 
from  a  match.  Harrels  which  have  contained  peti'oieum  or 
coal  oil  will  sometimes  become  filled  with  just  such  a  mix- 
ture of  gas  and  air  5\s  to  be  very  explosive.  A  negro,  at  a 
small  town  in  Cioorgia,  sitting  upon  an  empty  kerosene 
barrel,  lit  a  match  at  the  bung.  The  barrel  exploded, 
blowing  out  the  head.^,  but  the  negro  was  fortunately  not 
much  hurt.  Accidents  from  the  gases  of  petroleum  and 
coal  oil  occur  also  in  stills  which  have  not  been  ventilated 
properly  betbre  being  approached  with  a  light. 


m 


VAKIETIES  AND   PRODUCTS  OF  PETROLEUM. 

The  oil  wells  of  Pennsylvania  yield  generally  greenish 
oils  of  rather  unpleasant  odors.  Their  specific  gravity 
ranges  fixmi  -SiiO  to  '782,  or  from  proof  40"  to  proof  48* 
Baume.    The  oil  by  distillation  yields  from  75  to  85  per 


88 


VARIETIES  OP  PETROLEUM. 


cent,  of  a  lamp  oil  which  sliould  not  vaporize  and  inflame 
under  a  temperature  of  irom  110°  to  116°  Fab.  The 
refined  oil  is  usually  sold  subject  to  the  above  test.  '    . 

The  heavy  oils,  or  residuum,  left  in  the  still  are  sub- 
jected to  the  panitHu  treatment,  and  sold  as  lubrica- 
tors. In  some  cases  the  pai'affin  is  not  separated,  but  the 
whole  residuum  is  mixed  with  various  matters  and  sold  as 
cart  grease.  The  naptha,  or  benzole,  as  it  is  improperly 
called,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  is 
mixed  with  turpentine  for  painting  purposes.  The  naptha 
is  obtained  in  varying  })rup()rtions  from  the  petroleum,  but 
is  usually  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  crude  oil. 

A  very  heavy  lubricating  oil  is  obtained  from  several 
wells  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  of  specific  gravities  '880 
to  '860,  or  from  proof  28"  to  32°  Baume.  Some  of  these 
heavy  oils  will  remain  fluid  at  very  low  temperature.  The 
"Mecca  oil"  is  of  this  class.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from 
•890  to  -910,  or  from  proofs  23^  to  26°  Baume. 

An  oil  is  obtained  from  the  wells  of  the  Tarentum  Oil, 
Salt,  and  Coal  Co.,  uf  the  spccilic  gravity  of  -795,  or  proof 
45"  Baume.  It  is  of  a  dark  amber  color,  and  will  burn  for 
a  time  in  lamps  without  being  previously  refined.  It  yields 
6  per  cent,  of  naptha  by  distillation,  and  90  per  cent,  of 
lamp  oil.  It  is  used  by  woollen  manufacturers  in  place  of 
lard  oil. 

A  very  heavy  oil  is  obtained  near  Crestline,  Ohio.  It 
resembles  the  Mecca  oil,  autl  is  an  excellent  lubricator.  The 
wells  at  Franklin,  Pennsylvania,  produce  heavy  oils.  An 
oil,  which  is  quite  equal  in  color  to  the  best  refined  paraffin 
oil,  is  found  on  Duck  Creek,  Ohio. 

The  Canada  petroleum  is  of  specific  gravity  from  -880  to 
•860,  or  from  proof  28°  to  32°  Baume.  It  is  a  dark 
colored  and  offensive  oil.    Its  odor  can  be  removed  as 


PETROLEUM  OF  CALIFOllNIA. 


89 


shown  in  another  place.  It  yields  more  lamp  oil  than  the 
Pennsylvania,  as  it  will  burn  in  a  lamp  at  proof  36°  Baume, 
or  specific  gravity  '8B8. 

The  California  petroleum  varies  in  density.  Mr.  J.  H. 
White,  of  San  Francisco,  gives  the  yield  of  the  petroleum 
tested  by  him  as  below,  the  crude  oil  being  at  20°  Baume, 
or  specific  gravity  -927  : 


38  per  cent.  Illuminating  oil, 
48      "         Lubricating  oil, 
10  Pitch, 
4  Water. 

100 


41"  Baurad. 
210       « 


Mr.  Gilbert,  who  has  had  some  experience  in  California 
petroleum,  states  that  the  crude  oil  loses  10  to  15  per  cent, 
of  its  volume  in  the  process  of  rectification,  and  classifies 
the  products  as  follows : 


IB 

Light  oil  (Naphtha) 

5  per 

cent. 

at  65" 

^1 

Burning  oil     •' 

.    50 

ti 

30°  to  32" 

I'll 

Light  'aachino  oil, 

.    20 

<( 

25° 

s '  ■'.v'ii  ■ 

Heavy  oil  and  paraffin. 

.    25 

(( 

18" 

iI'Li.^-*       r.l»^^»»*-.      -m.T      i-i^l»-^-«»-»         t-vn^^  n^ 

r> f  0:11 

V-,           -«««,-v«t.            «.-, 

California  Petroleum  region.  The  proofs  mentioned  are, 
no  doubt,  those  of  Baurae's  hydrometer.  The  density  of 
the  illuminating  oil  seems  to  be  stated  rather  low.  but  it 
may  be  that  tha  lamp  oil  from  California  petroleum  can  be 
burned  at  a  lower  proof  than  even  that  of  Canada,  which 
burns  at  SG"^  Baume. 

There  has  been  some  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the 
yield  of  California  petroleum  in  lamp  oil.  Both  of  the 
oils  examined  by  Mr.  White  and  Mr.  Gilbert,  arc  certainly 


'.tJKk 


40 


PETROLEUM  OF  CANADA. 


valuable.  In  a  region  wliere  petroleum  can  be  had  in  a 
variety  of  conditions,  samples  can  be  tested  which  would 
bear  no  comparison  in  product  to  each  other. 

Hardened  petroleum  from  Enniskillen,  Canada  West, 
was  tested  by  the  author  and  found  to  yield  50  per  cent, 
of  products  by  distillation.  A  sample  not  quite  so  indu- 
rated gave  65  per  cent. 

Messrs.  Parsons  and  Conway  report  that  crude  oil  from 
the  Buenavcnture  district,  California,  produces  50  per  cent, 
of  lump  oil,  and  28  per  cent,  of  lubricating  oil. 


ii, 


m 


m 


t 


CANADA  PETKOLEUM. 

The  petroleum  wells  of  Canada  are  situated  principally 
in  the  county  of  Lambton,  Canada  West,  The  oil  springs 
of  Enniskillen,  and  of  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  were  long 
ago  known  to  the  Indians  and  early  settlers.  On  Black 
Creek,  petroleum  springs  had  in  course  of  time  covered 
an  area  of  two  acres  with  semi-solid  bitumen,  the  result  of 
its  loss  of  the  lighter  portions  by  evaporation. 

At  Enniskillen  the  rock  bed  is  covered  with  from  forty 
to  sixty  feet  of  clay  and  a  thin  bed  of  gravel. 

The  "  surface  wells,"  so  called,  arc  sunk  through  the  clay 
to  the  rock,  in  the  same  way  that  an  ordinary  shaft  is  sent 
down,  care  being  taken  to  curb  the  shaft  with  plank  or  tim- 
ber, to  prevent  the  caving  in  of  the  soft  and  water-laden 
sides.  Upon  reaching  the  gravel  bed,  the  petroleum  is 
generally  met  with  in  considerable  quantity,  though  it  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  shaft  as  it  descends.  The  clay 
seems  to  be  filled  with  veins  of  water  and  petroleum,  and 
from  these  the  surface  wells  are  supplied.  The  "rock 
wells,"  as  they  are  termed,  are  those  deeper  bc'rings  which 


PETEOLEUM  OF  TRINIDAD. 


41 


resemble  those  of  Pennsylvania.  They  are  sometimes  sunk 
■when  the  surface  well  becomes  exhausted,  by  continuing 
the  wells  by  the  drills,  or  are  commenced,  as  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, by  driving  to  the  rock-bed. 

At  a  distance  of  two  hundred  feet  from  the  surface  the 
petroleum  is  found ;  sometimes  in  great  abundance.  Usually 
petroleum  and  water  are  produced  by  the  well,  but  recent 
wells  have  been  found  to  send  up  petroleum  only. 

The  townships  of  Mosa  and  Oxford,  on  the  Thames,  and 
a  locality  on  the  Big  Otter  Creek,  in  Dereham,  near  Tilson- 
burg,  have  been  found  to  contain  the  oil.  Wells  have  been 
sunk  at  Gaspe,  Canada  East,  near  Douglastown,  where 
petroleum  springs  are  found.  So  far,  they  have  not  been 
found  to  yield  very  largely.  Indications  of  petroleum, 
however,  exist  over  a  large  portion  of  Gaspe,  and  it  is  very 
probable  that  a  large  supply  may  yet  be  had  from  this 
quarter. 

PETROLEUM   OF  TRINIDAD. 


The  celebrated  Pitch  Lake  of  the  Island  of  Trinidad  is 
upwards  of  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  forms  the  head 
of  La  Brae  harbor.  At  the  time  of  the  author's  visit  to  the 
place,  the  bitumen,  of  the  consistency  of  thin  mortar,  was 
*flowing  out  from  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  making  its  way  out- 
wards over  more  compact  layers  towards  the  sea.  As  the 
semi-solid  and  sulphureous  mineral  advances,  and  is  ex- 
posed to  the  atmosphere,  it  becomes  more  solid ;  but  ever 
continues  to  advance  and  encroach  upon  the  water  of  the 
harbor.  The  surfnce  of  the  bitumen  is  occupied  by  small 
ponds  of  water — clear  and  trr.isparent,  in  which  there  are 
several  kinds  of  beautiful  fishes.  The  sea,  near  the  shore, 
sends  up  considerable  quantities  of  naphtha  from  submarine 


42 


PETROLEUM  OF  CUBA,   ETC, 


springs,  and  the  water  is  often  covered  with  oil,  wliicli 
reflects  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  In  the  cliffs,  along  tho 
shores,  there  are  strata  of  lignite,  in  which  it  lias  been  sup- 
posed by  some  the  bitumen  and  naphtha  had  their  origin. 

PETROLEUM  OP  CUBA,    WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS,    AND  SOUTH 

AMERICA. 

In  Venezuela,  at  the  Fuuta  d'Araya,  at  Cape  Cirial,  and 
near  Cape  de  la  Brea,  Von  Humboldt  observed  "  streams  of. 
naphtha  issuing  from  mica  slate,  and  covering  the  sea  for 
some  distance."*  At  the  Lake,  and  near  the  city  of  Mara- 
caybo,  numerous  streams  of  petroleum  are  found,,  together 
with  compact  bitumen. 

Petroleum  springs  have  also  been  discovered  in  Brazil. 
Most  of  the  West  India  Islands  contain  petroleum  and 
bitumen. 

E.  C.  Taylor,  in  his  "  Statistics  of  Coal,"  1855,  states 
that  from  the  serpentine  rock  at  Guanabacoa,  near  Havana, 
petroleum  springs  are  observed  issuing.  There  are  all  tho 
varieties  of  bitumen  to  be  found  here,  from  the  thin  oil  to 
the  compact  pitch.  It  is  a  matter  of  history,  that  Havana 
was  originally  named  "Carine"  by  the  early  visitors  and 
settlers ;  "  for  there  we  careened  our  ships,  and  pitched 
them  with  the  natural  tar  which  we  found  lying  in  abun- 
dance upon  the  shores  of  this  beautiful  bay."f 

"  There  are  also  springs  of  petroleum  between  Holguin 
and  Mayari,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cuba,  and  also  in  the  di- 
rection of  Santiago  de  Cuba."  X   There  is  a  petroleum  spring 


*  Travels  and  Researehea  of  Alexander  Von  Humboldt,  1790. 

f  Early  History  of  Cuba. 

X  Essai  Politique  sur  I'lsle  de  Cuba, 


PETROLEUM  OF  BtJRMAH. 


43 


in  St.  Andrew's  parish,  Barbadoes.  The  product  of  this 
spring  has  been  sold  under  the  name  of  "  green  tar,"  and 
"  Barbadoes  tar." 

PETROLEUM  OF  BURMAH,  JAVA,    ETC. 

The  celebrated  Kangoon  wells  at  Yananhoung,  on  the 
Irawaddy,  produce  yearly  a  large  supply  of  petroleum, 
which  is  regularly  imported  into  England.  It  contains 
from  ten  to  eleven  per  cent,  of  paraffin. 

Mineral  oils  are  also  found  in  many  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  Java  and  Sumatra  produce  them.  An 
almost  colorless  oil  rises  from  the  earth  at  Baku,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  can  be  burned  in  lamps  in 
its  natural  state.  Petroleum  is  found  at  Schnde,  near  Hil- 
desheim,ln  Hanover,  and  in  Gallicia ;  at  Amiaao,  in  Italy; 
in  Bavaria,  Sicily,  Switzerland,  France,  and  in  other  parts 
of  Europe. 

It  would  seem  from  the  numerous  place?  on  the  globe 
where  petroleum  exists,  that  it  must  for  a  long  time  do 
away  ^Yith  the  necessity  for  coal  distillation.  But  though 
petroleum  has  been  discovered  at  the  places  mentioned,  it 
has  been  produced  as  an  article  of  commerce  at  but  a  very 
few  of  them,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  from  many  of  them 
any  large  supply  will  ever  be  obtained.  There  will  always 
be  places  where  coal  and  coal  shales  will  be  the  most  pro- 
fitable to  the  manufacturer.  In  Great  Btitain,  for  instance, 
the  distillation  of  shales  is  steadily  increasing,  though  its 
commerce  with  the  United  States  is  very  large,  and  the 
shipments  of  petroleum  from  the  latter  country  are  exten- 
sive. 


.JtVjki..'^. 


44 


VARIETIES  OF  COAL. 


CHAPTER  m. 

Coal — Biturainons  Clays  and  Shales— Bitumen — Tabid  of  Volatile  Matter, 
Coko  and  Crude  Oil  from  Coals,  etc. 

The  varietiea  of  coal  have  iieretofore  been  claased  under 
the  heada  of 

Anthracite,  or  Hard  Coal^ 

Caking  Coal, 

Cherry  Coal, 

Splint  Coal,  and  • 

Cannel  Coal. 

These  five  varietiea  have  the  following  compoaition :— 


RlOHARDSON'. 

Thompson. 

AnthTMltft 

Cbklitg  Coal. 

Chciry  Chit. 

Splint  Coal. 

Cannel  Coal 

Carbon 

92-56 

87-952 

83025 

82-924 

76-25 

Hydrogen 

8-33 

5-230 

5-250 

6-491 

5-50 

Nitrogen 

u 

i 

(1 

(( 

u 

1-61 

Oxygen 

2-5a 

3-806 

8-566 

8-847 

13-83 

Ashes 

1-58 

1-303 

1-549 

1-128 

2-81 

Other  varietiea  of  combuatiblea  have  been  arranged  by 
Berthier  in  the  following  manner  i — 


:  s... 


COMPOSITION  OF  COALS. 


45 


Composition  In 
100  parts. 

Pent  or 
Turf. 

Lltcnlto,  or 
Brown  Coal. 

Bltumlnooa 
CoaU 

Anthracite, 
Ponnaylvanlo. 

Pinmbngo,  or 
Graphite. 

Carbon 

88 

54 

73 

94 

95 

Hydrogen 

iC 

05 

05 

2-55 

l( 

Oxygen 

(( 

26 

20 

2-56 

II 

Ashes 

17.4 

14 

02 

II 

II 

Volatile ) 
Matter   j 

28 

II 

K 

II 

II 

Iron 

II 

II 

II 

II 

5 

The  names  given  to  combustible  substances  have  been 
applied  with  reference  only  to  their  common  characters  and 
uses.  Frequently  coals  bear  the  names  of  the  places  where 
they  are  mined.  Few  of.  their  appellacions  have  any 
reference  whatever  to  their  chemical  composition,  and 
therefore  in  seeking  for  oil  coals  (if  the  term  may  be  used) 
the  manufacturer  must  be  directed  by  an  actual  test  of  the 
materiiU  itself. 

In  the  same  coal  field,  the  same  series  of  strata,  and  in 
the  same  stratum,  there  are  important  differences  of  compo- 
sition. It  is  as  providential  as  wonderful  that  the  carbo- 
naceous material  of  the  same  deposit  is  adapted  to  different 
uses. 

The  varieties  of  coal  may  have  been  produced  from  the 
different  kinds  of  plants  from  which  the  coal  has  been 
derived,  and  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  districts  where 
those  plants  flourished  before  their  downfall  and  inhuma- 
tion, or  submersion.  The  changes  that  have  taken  place 
in  the  original  plants  during  their  passage  from  woody 
fibre  into  coal,  are  ascribed  to  the  evolution  of  a  part  of 


46 


COMPOSITION  OF  COALS. 


their  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  there  is  less  of  those 
elements  in  the  coal  than  in  wood.  This  will  be  observed 
by  viewing  the  following  table: — 


Carbon,     Hydrogen. 
90-  2-50 


Composition  of  the  Anthracites  of  tiie 
Transition  RocTa 
•'  "        Bituminous  Coal  of  the 

Secondary  Rocks      .      86'  4'8G 

"  "        Lignites  of  tLe  Tertiary 

Jiocks    .        .        .        GO  36        5-00 
Wood  (recent) 49GO       5 80 


Oxycen 

and 
Nitrogen. 

3-G9 
711 

25  62 
42-56 


It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  older  the  formation 
the  greater  the  amount  of  carbon  contained  in  its  coal,  the 
amount  of  hydrogen  being  diminished.  This  fact  may  be 
ascribed,  chiefly,  or  in  part,  to  the  greater  degree  of  heat 
and  pressure  to  which  the  lower  and  older  coal  strata  have 
been,  and  still  are  subjected. 

The  gases  of  deep  coal  mines  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  gas  manufactories,  and  such  as  are  produced  by  a  high 
temperature.  The  deeper  the  mine  the  greater  is  the  dis- 
charge of  carburetted  hydrogen.  It  is  to  the  internal  heat 
of  the  earth,  and  other  chemical  agencies  combined  with 
causes  of  less  force,  that  we  must  chiefly  ascribe  the  trans- 
mutation of  wood  into  coal.  The  similarity  of  the  distilled 
products  of  wood  and  coals,  and  of  charcoal  and  coke,  should 
not  be  overlooked  in  seeking  for  proofs  of  the  vegetable 
origin  of  coal.  In  mines  of  lignite  and  cannel  coal  car- 
bonic acid  er  choke  damp  is  almost  the  only  gas  present. 
In  lower  coal  mines,  or  those  that  have  been  longer  under 
the  influence  of  heating  and  other  chemical  agents,  carbu- 
retted hydrogen,  or  Jire  damp,  predominates. 

Liebig  has  shown  the  great  loss  of  oxygen  and  increase 


BOGHEAD   COAT 


4T 


of  hydrogen  and  carbon  i  ignite  and  brown  coal,  during 
their  transition  from  a  vegetable  to  a  fossil  state ;  still  there 
is  much  that  remains  unexplained  regarding  other  kinds  of 
coai. 


BOGHEAD  COAL,   OR  BITUMINOUS  CLAY. 

■  This  peculiar  mineral  occurs  at  Torbane  Hill,  in  the  car- 
boniferous limestone  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  Scotland.  It  is 
the  material  from  which  Mr.  Young  obtains  paraffin  oil 
and  paraffin,  and  his  manufactory  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  mines.  It  has  been  extensively  shipped  to 
the  United  States,  and  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
kerosene  at  New  York  and  Boston.  During  the  year  1859 
the  North  American  Kerosene  Gas  Light  Company  im- 
ported upwards  of  20,000  tons  of  this  material  for  the  sup- 
ply of  their  works  at  Newtown  Creek,  Long  Island,  and  at 
an  average  cost  of  eighteen  dollars  per  ton.  In  consequence 
of  the  discovery  of  numerous  strata  of  cannel  coals  in  the 
Western  States  of  this  country,  and  of  cheaper  substances 
for  the  production  of  oils,  the  importation  of  the  Torbane 
Ilill  mineral  will  doubtless  be  discontinued. 

Although  this  mineral  possesses  few  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  a  true  coal,  the  term  coal  hiis  been  applied  to  it  for 
commercial  convenience.  It  has  been  the  source  of  long- 
continued  and  expensive  lawsuits.  The  point  in  dispute 
affected  the  ownership,  whether  it  was  coal,  or  not  coal. 
Numbers  of  the  most  scientific  men  in  Europe  were 
arraigned  before  courts  and  juries  to  decide  whether  the 
so-called  Boghead  coal  is  coal,  or  bituminous  clay.  There 
was  a  decided  preponderance  against  the  term  '■^coal,''^  and 
in  favor  of  "bituminous  clay."  Finally  the  contending 
parties  compromised,  and  the  terra  coal  was  permitted  to 


4S 


ALBERT  COAL. 


be  applied,  although  the  bitumen  of  the  Great  Pitch  Lake 
of  Trinidad  has  an  equal  right  to  that  appellation.* 

Boghead  coal  is  among  the  most  valuable  minerals  for 
the  manufacture  of  oils.  It  has  an  uneven  fracture,  is  of  an 
earthy  color,  and  burns  with  a  long  smoky  flame.  It  yields 
18,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  of  specific  gravity  0-775  per  ton. 
As  it  contains  only  traces  of  nitrogen,  the  quantity  of  am- 
monia given  oft"  is  small.  The  following  is  the  medium 
result  of  four  trials  in  testing  its  qualities  : — 


^  Volatile  matter 
Carbon  in  coke 
Ash 


7010 
1030 
I960 

10000 


The  ton  of  coal  run  in  common  retorts  gives  120  gallons 
of  crude  oil,  of  which  65  gallons  may  be  made  into  lamp 
oil,  7  gallons  of  paraffin  oil,  and  12  lbs.  of  pure  paraffin. 
The  cokt  is  worthless,  and  the  ash  consists  chiefly  of  silica 
and  alumina.  At  a  price  of  11  dollars  per  ton  for  the  coals, 
the  cost  of  the  oil  is  estimated  at  63  cents  per  gallon.f 


ALBERT  COAL. 

This  bituminous  mineral  occurs  at  Hillsboro',  Albert 
County,  in  the  province  of  New  Brunswick,  and  within 
four  miles  of  the  Peticodiac  Kiver.  It  is  an  injected  vein, 
situated  almost  vertically  in  the  earth,  and  from  one  to  six- 
teen feet  in  thickness.  It  is  associated  with  rocks  highly 
charged  with  bitumen,  and  has  neither  roof,  floor,  under- 

*  London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting,  iii.  52  i.     Young  vs.  'Wliito,  and  othera. 
f  Report  of  the  Committee  North  American  Kerosene  Gas  Liglit  Company. 
New  York     1860. 


ALBERT  COAL. 


49 


clay,  nor  stratnm  of  stigmm-ia,  nor  other  accompaniments 
which  distinguish  coal  deposits  from  all  others.^ 

The  Albert  coal,  so  called,  is  e.xtremely  brilliant,  breaks 
with  a  conchoidal  fracture,  does  not  soil  the  fingers,  and  is 
strongly  electric.  It  melts,  and  drops  in  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  and  dissolves  in  naphtha  and  other  solvents,  form- 
ing a  varnish.  It  has  all  the  essential  properties  of  asphal- 
tum,  while  it  is  void  of  those  which  constitute  true  coal. 
Like  the  mineral  of  Torbane  Hill,  it  has  been  the  subject 
of  disputes  and  lawsuits,  the  total  cost  of  which  has 
exceeded  thirty  thousand  dollars.  If  the  substance  were 
coal,  the  coal  was  the  property  of  one  party ;  if  asphal- 
tum,  the  asphaltum  belonged  to  another.  Cool  had  been 
reserved  by  the  Crown  of  Great  Britain ;  but  asphaltum 
was  not  mentioned  in  the  grants  of  the  land.  In  April, 
1852,  ;'n  intelligent  jury,  who  analysed  the  mineral  at  Hali- 
fax, decided  that  it  was  asphaltum,  and  not  coal.  Another 
trial  was  held  in  the  county  where  the  so-called  Albert  coal 
is  mined  in  July  of  the  same  year.  It  lasted  eleven  days. 
Chemists  were  Svimmoned  from  every  quarter,  and  under 
the  most  conflicting  testimony,  and  with  a  jury  of  farmers, 
the  advocates  for  coal  obtained  a  verdict,  and  the  asphaltum 
has  since  been  called  Albert  coal.  The  composition  of  the 
Albert  coal  is  as  follows : — 


Carbon  . 

86-207 

85-400 

Hydrogen 

8-962 

9-200 

Nitrogen 

2-930 

3-060 

Sulphur 

traces 

a  trace 

Oxygen 

1-971 

2-220 

,    Ash        . 

0-100 

0-120 

100-000 

100-000 

C. 

M. 

WETnERELl. 

Gesnkh. 

*  See  Taylor  on  Coal,  2d  edition,  p.  516. 


■A:~<..-i^  O'^J. 


50 


BRECKKNRIDOE  COAL. 


Tlio  average  yield  of  crude  oils  by  four  trials  in  largo 
retorts  was  1 10  gallons  per  ton,  and 


Volatile  inattors 
Coke      . 

Hygroscopic  inoisturo 
Ash 


01050 

30  650 

O8G0 

7-440 

100000 

Of  the  crude  oil  70  per  cent,  may  be  made  into  lamp  oil, 
10  per  cent,  is  heavy  oil  and  j)araflin.  The  coke  is  exceed- 
ingly brilliant  and  cellular ;  it  burns  rapidly,  and  gives  a 
strong  heat. 


BRECKENRIDGE  COAL. 

The  Alleghany,  or  Apalacliian  coal  field  of  the  United 
States,  has  been  estimated  to  embrace  63,000  square  miles. 
Intei'stratified  with  the  common  bituminous  coals,  in  this 
vast  region  there  are  very  numerous  strata  of  canncl  coals, 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  oils.  In  the  numerous  sur- 
veys and  valuable  reports  made  on  the  coal  districts,  eannel 
coals  are  seldom  described  as  a  distinct  variety. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  great  Western  coal  field  is,  that  the 
coal  does  not  appear  to  be  separated  into  basins,  or  lake- 
like depressions  in  the  earth,  as  it  is  in  Europe,  and  in  the 
anthracite  coal  districts.  The  bituminous  eoal  is  found  in 
the  tops  of  hills,  and  even  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  in 
beds  nearly  horizontal,  and  it  displays  the  same  peculiarity 
as  it  stretches  away  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Canadian  Lakes,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  * 

Among  the  cannels  that  have  been  discovered  Brecken- 
ridge  coal  holds  an  important  place.  This  coal  occurs  in 
Breckenridge  County,  Kentucky.     It  is  a  rich  variety  of 


— '  tV^" 


CANDLE  TAR.  61 

cnnncl,  three  foot  in  thk'knoK",  and  bus  nlrcndy  supplied  a 
large  amount  of  oil  and  paraflin.  The  lamp  oil,  when  pro- 
perly purified,  i;}  of  good  quality.  At  a  red  heat  this  coul 
yields — 

Volatilo  mattors 61 300 

Fixtnl  nubon 30  000 

Aali 8065 

HyproBcopie  mointuro    ....  '646 

Suliihur a  traco 

100000 

By  the  ordinary  methotls  of  working,  this  coal  yields  180 
gallons  of  crude  oil  per  ton,  of  which  5S  per  cent,  was 
manufactured  into  lamp  oil,  and  12  gallons  into  paraflin 
oil  and  paraflin.  Tlio  quality  of  the  coal  is  variable,  and 
the  products  arc  very  much  influenced  by  the  degree  of 
heat  applied  to  the  retorts  in  the  distillation. 


i 


CAMUl.K  TAR. 

The  tar  and  pitoh  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of 
stearine  have  Ixx^n  employed  for  the  production  of  oils. 
Large  supplies  huN-x)  boon  imported  from  England  into  the 
United  States,  and  sold  under  the  names  of  "grease"  and 
candle  tar.  The  oixlinary  yield  of  crude  oil  from  this  mate- 
rial is  *200  gallons  jKsr  ton,  of  which  70  per  cent,  may  be 
made  into  lamp  oil,  and  10  per  cent,  into  lubricating  oil. 
The  oils  are  oxcelleut  in  quality ;  but  heretofore  the  first 
distillation  of  the  tar  has  been  attended  with  im  ^nvenience, 
as  it  "  foams  up"  in  the  retorts,  and  the  coke  adheres  very 
firmly  to  their  sides.  The  price  has  \  iiried  from  25  to  40 
dollars  per  ton. 

This  article  was  distilled  in  New  York  by  Henry  Gesner, 


OS 


POOLE  COAL. 


in  1857.  The  tar  foams  in  the  beginning  of  the  distilla- 
tion, and  is  very  troublesome.  The  foaming  arises  from 
water  intimately  combined  with  the  tar,  and  causes  the 
charge  to  "boil  over."  In  one  instance,  the  expansive 
force  was  so  great  as  to  lift  the  dome  of  the  still,  which 
was  let  into  a  groove  around  the  sides,  and  not  bolted,  but 
cemented.  The  consequence  was  that  the  charge  in  the 
still  spewed  out  and  took  fire,  and  the  factory  was  destroyed. 
Taere  is  a  small  portion  of  stearic  acid  distilled  over,  after 
the  water  has  been  removed.  The  distillate  runs  from  65° 
Baum6  to  30°  Baumd  There  is  a  hard  coke  or  pitch  left 
in  the  still. 

The  residuum  of  palm  oil  and  lard  distillations  behaves 
in  much  the  same  way.    The  illuminating  oil  is  excellent. 


SOUTH  BOGHEAD  COAL. 

Near  Poole  (England)  there  occurs  a  peculiar  kind  of 
shale,  which  has  been  sold  as  "  South  Boghead  Coal."  It 
abounds  in  the  remains  of  fishes  and  Crustacea.  It  gives 
out  42  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter,  and  therefore  has 
offered  an  object  of  trial  to  oil-makers ;  but  the  oils  made 
from  this  rock  contain  a  greater  number  of  the  equivalents 
of  carbon  than  those  derived  from  coals,  or  bitumens,  and 
with  the  ordinary  density  they  smoke  in  the  common  lamp. 
It  seems  quite  evident  that  the  elements  of  the  oU — carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  now  composing  the  shale, 
in  part,  have  been  derived  from  fisheg  and  other  marine 
animals,  and  not  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  as  in  the 
case  of  coal. 


AUSTRALIAN  COALS. 


S8 


BBOWN  COAL. 

Singular  beds  of  brown  coal  have  been  discovered  on 
the  Ouachita  Eiver,  Arkansas,  and  at  other  places  in  that 
quarter.  They  contain  the  remains  of  sphagneous  plants 
and  woody  fibre.  It  nppeara  that  peat  bogs  have  been 
overflown,  or  otherwise  saturated  with  petroleum,  and 
hardened  "frjr  time  and  oxidation.  The  oils  distilled  from 
this  material  abound  in  paraffin.  It  has  the  following  com- 
position in  100  parts : — 

Volatile  matters  condensed  into  oils,  and  gas  uncondensed    60-10 

Fixed  carbon 32-85 

Ash 7-05 


100-00 


Crude  oil  at  the  rate  of  68  gallons  per  ton  was  obtained 
from  it.  It  is  semi-solid  when  the  thermometer  is  at  80* 
Fah.,  and,  besides  lamp  and  lubricating  oils,  it  produces 
143  lbs.  of  paraffin  per  ton. 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  produce  a  variety  of 
shales,  which  at  one  time  could  be  profitably  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  oil.  The  "Pictou  shale"  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  "  Asphalte  Eock"  of  Dorchester,  New  Brunswick, 
yield  from  twenty  to  thirty  gallons  refined  oil  to  the  ton. 

A  sample  of  cannel  coal  from  Hunter's  Eiver,  Australia, 
gave  a  yield  of  sixty  gallons  crude,  and  forty  gallons  refined 
oil  to  the  ton.  Australia  evidently  abounds  in  bituminous 
substances.  Mr.  H.  H.  Hall,  of  Sidney,  N.  S.  W.,  handed 
the  author  several  fine  samples  of  cannel  coal  from  the  vici- 
nity of  Sidney,  together  with  a  small  specimen  of  shale, 
which,  in  appearance  and  burning  properties,  resembled  the 
Boghead  coal. 


54 


BITUMEN". 


BITUMEN  AND  BITUMINOUS  SANDS  AND  CLAYS. 

At  t\x'i  various  localities  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter  as  petroleum  deposits,  bitumen  in  different  stages 
of  solidity  is  generally  found. 

The  bitumen  of  Trinidad  was  the  article  from  which  the 
author  lirst  obtained  "  Kerosene,"  which  differs  in  some 
degree  from  *'  coal  oil."  The  bitumen  is  of  a  grey  color, 
somewhat  brittle,  but  still  yielding  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
A  cargo  of  broken  masses  will  consolidate  in  a  ship's  hold 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  require  mining  before  it  can  be  dis- 
charged. The  following  is  the  result  of  several  trials  made 
with  reference  to  its  application  for  the  manufacture  of  oils: 


Specific  gravity 
Crude  oil 
Refined  oil 
Lubricating  oil 


0.882 

.     70  gallons  per  ton. 
.     42        "        "      " 
.     11        "        "     " 


This  bitumen  varies  in  quality,  owing  to  the  sand  and 
debris  over  which  it  flows.  Taken  from  the  lake  itself,  it 
would  probably  yield  twice  the  above  quantity  of  oil. 

A  vein  of  bitumen  has  been  discovered  near  Cairo,  thirty 
miles  east  of  Purkersburg,  "West  Virginia.  It  is  repre- 
sented as  a  perpendicular  mass,  jutting  out  from  the  side  of 
a  hill  two  hundred  and  ninety  feet.  The  strata  of  the  hill 
are  nearly  horizontal,  and  they  are  cut  at  right  angles  by 
the  continuous  vein  of  the  bituminous  mineral,  which  is 
four  feet  eight  inclies  in  thickness.  The  position  of  the 
vein  has  been  ascertained  by  the  proprietors,  who  have 
sunk  a  shaft  upon  the  line  of  the  outcrop.  A  sensible  de- 
scription represents  that  it  appears  the  hill  has  been  split,  a 


m 


BITUMINOUS  CLAY. 


00 


perpendicular  chasm  opened,  and  afterwards  filled  with 
asphaltum  in  a  liquid  state,  and  which  has  since  hardened 
into  a  compact  material.  Ooal  never  occurs  in  this  manner; 
but  is  always  interstratified  with  its  associate  sandstones, 
shales,  and  fire  clays.  In  all  its  geological  relations  and 
character,  the  Cairo  deposit  is  like  the  asphaltum  of  Albert 
County,  New  Brunswick. 

Some  of  the  Cuba  bitumens  yield  one  hundred  and 
twenty  gallons  of  crude  oil  to  the  ton.  The  finest  varieties 
are  used  in  making  varnish.  On  the  borders  of  the  River 
Acarahy,  forty  miles  south  of  Bahia,  there  are  extensive 
beds  of  lime  and  clay  saturated  with  bitumen,  and  capable 
of  yielding  oil  in  large  quantities.  The  oils  resemble  those 
obi  '^'^•?d  from  Trinidad  or  Cuba  bitumen. 

i  Ik  tnnexed  table  will  afford  some  guide  to  the  manu- 
facturer regarding  the  proportion  that  crude  oil  bears  to  the 
volatile  matters  of  the  material,  and  also  regarding  the  loca- 
lities of  coals,  shales,  bitumen,  etc.  The  refined  products 
of  crude  coal  oil  depend  so  much  upon  iheir  treatment 
that  it  is  diflBcult  to  express  in  figures  their  actual  amount. 

Breckenridge  coal,  as  has  been  shown,  gives — 

130  galls,  crude  oil  per  ton. 
From  which  we  obtain  80  gallons  illuminating  oil, 
and        .        .  12      '        paraffin  oil, 

Making.        .        .        .    92      "      in  all  of  marketable  oils. 
Boghead  coal  oil  yields  120  galls,  crude  oil  per  ton. 
From  which  we  obtain  65  gallons  illuminating  oil, 

7      "       paraffin  oil, 
and.        ..       .        .12  lbs.  paraffin. 

Equal  to  about        .        .  84  gallons  of  marketable  oils. 

Yet  by  experimental  distillation  Boghead  coal  yields  more 
volatile  matter,  and  leaves  less  coke  than  the  Brecken- 
ridge. 


>3: 


56 


VOLATILE  MATTERS,  ETC.,   FROM  COALS. 


Locality. 


\gland. 

Derbyshii 

Wigan  Caonel 

Liyerpool  " 

Poole  (Shale) , 

Newcastle 

iSeoHand. 

Boghead    

Scotch  Cannel 

L'3sniahago 

Provincial. 
Albert  Coal,  N.  Brunswick  . 
Asphalts,  Rock,  " 

Pictou  ohale.  Nova  Scotia    . 

American. 

Breckenridge 

Erie  Kailroad 

Newburg 

Falling  Rock 

Pittflburg 

Kanawha 

Elk  River 

Cannelton 

Coshocton,  Ohio 

Darlington,  Pa.  ....    , 
Ouachita  River,  Arkansas     . 

Biiumen,  etc.,  United  Stat. ,. 

Ritchie  County,  Virginia  .    . 

Pennsylvania 

Petroleum  Springs,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Tennessee,  Ken- 
tucky, Virginia,  Maryland, 
Ohio,  Penns'lvania,  Canada 

Cuia. 
Bitumen 

Trinidad, 
Bitumen 

■    Canada  etc. 

Bitumen 

Illinois  "  Gas  Qtone"    .    .    . 

Caltfornia - .    . 

Brazil 

Peat 


Volatile 
Matten. 


48  36 

44 

39 

42 

35 

7010 

38 

5. 

61050 
43 

27 

61-30 

35 

38 

50 

36 

46 

41 

34 

45 

42 

60 


I- 


71 

38 

70 
26 
70 
78 
71 


Coke. 


53 

56 
61 
58 
65 

2990 

62 

49 

30-65 

57 
73 

3855 

66 

52 

50 

64 

54 

59 

66 

64 

58 

40 


29 

52 

30 

Jjimest'e, 

30 

22 

25 


Yield  of  Grade  Oil 
per  ton. 


82  gallons. 
74 
50 
50 
48 

120 
40 
96 

110 
64 

47 

130 
47 
72 
£J 
49 
71 
60 
86 
74 
56 
64 

170  gals,  per  ton. 

From  75  to  85  per 
cent,  of  Lamp 
Oil. 


120 

70 

118 

18 

116 


6  to  6 


PEAT. 


m 


Actual  test  by  retorting  and  distilling  must  be  made 
before  judging  of  the  value  of  any  particular  coal  for 
oils. 

Persons  unaccustomed  to  handling  coals  may  judge 
roughly  of  their  value  for  oil  by  noticing  their  weight,  lus- 
tre, etc. 

As  a  rule,  a  dull  fracture,  great  comparative  lightness, 
and  easy  inflammability  in  the  flame  of  a  candle,  are  favor- 
able signs  of  an  oil  coal. 

Sometimes  shales  of  very  inferior  appearance  are- rich  in 
oil.  Commercially,  the  value  of  any  coal  for  oil  will 
depend  upon  its  situation.  There  are  places  where  the 
distillation  of  shales  can  be  profitiibly  mfide  by  the  heat 
afforded  by  ordinary  bituminous  coals ;  shales  never  yield- 
ing coke  of  any  value. 

A  coal  which  will  yield  sixty  gallons  of  crude  oil,  or 
forty  gallons  of  refined  oil  for  lamps,  may  be  regarded  aa 
an  excellent  article  when  it  will  afford  coke  enough  to  sup- 
ply the  heat  for  its  own  distillation. 

Peat  has  been  distilled  for  oils  in  Ireland,  and  in  Kildare 
the  extensive  works  of  the  Irish  Peat  Company  have  been 
in  operation  for  that  purpose  for  some  time.  One  ton  of 
peat  yields  on  an  average : 


Liquids  (not  oily), 
Tar 
From  wliich  are  produced  : 
Lamp  oil, 
Lubricating  oil, 
Parafiin, 
Ammonia, 
Acetic  acid, 
Naphtha, 
And  25  per  cent,  of  chai- oal 


65  Gallons. 

6 

2  Gilllons. 

1  Gallon. 

3    lbs. 

3    lbs. 

5i  lbs. 

8    lbs. 

58 


PBAT. 


.       * 


Tliua  far,  however,  peat  has  not  been  a  suooeasful  oom 
petitor  of  coal,  bitumen,  or  other  more  compact  oarbona* 
ceous  materials. 


DISTILLATIOK  OF  COALS. 


69 


CHAPTBL  IV. 

* 

Nature  of  the  products  distilled  from  BitrniinouA  Bubetanoes.— 'Modes  of 
obtaining  Oils — Retorts.— D-ehaped  Retorts.— Bevolving  Retorts. — Ver- 
tical Retorta— Clay  Retorts.— Brick  Ovena— Coke  Oven&— Stills.— Con- 

',  densers. — Agitators. — Super-heatera  , 


To  obtain  oils  from  coals  and  other  dry  bituminous  mate- 
rials, it  is  necessary  in  the  first  place  that  they  shall  be 
submitted  to  dry  or  decomposing  distillation,  by  which  oils 
are  formed,  the  coke  or  fix** '  carbon  remaining  with  the 
ash  in  the  distilling  'vessel.  The  economy  and  perfection 
of  this  operation  depend  upon  the  kind  of  retor".  used,  the 
degree  of  heat  applied,  an&  the  efficiency  of  the  condens- 
ing part  of  the  apparatus.  If  a  given  quantity  r  oal  be 
distilled  in  a  retort  or  close  vessel  at  a  heat  of  1,200°  or 
thereabouts,  in  the  manner  that  coal  gas  is  made,  a  large 
quantity  of  gas  will  be  formed.  The  oily  products  will  be 
small  in  quantity,  and  consist  chiefly  of  benzole,  naphtha, 
naphthalin,  carbolic  acid,  piccamar,  pittical,  copnomor, 
and  other  hydrocarbons,  which,  so  far  an  the  oil  manufac- 
*rer's  objects  are  concerned,  may  be  called  impurities. 
They  are  not  impurities ;  but  in  the  progress  of  chemical 
science  they  may  hereafter  become  valuable.  ■  Again,  the 
crude  oils  obtained  by  such  a  heat  contain  more  carbon 
than  those  produced  by  a  lower  heat,  much  of  the  hydro- 
gen being  driven  oflf  from  the  coal  in  carburetted  gases. 
But  if  the  heat  to  which  the  coals  are  exposed  does  not 
exceed  760°  or  800°  Fab.,  a  diflferent  class  of  results  fol- 


60 


RETORTS. 


lows.  Instead  of  true  benzole,  eupion*  will  be  formed,  the 
naphthalia  will  be  replaced  by  paraffin,  the  carbojic  acid, 
piccamar,  copnomf^r,  etc.,  will  be  less  in  quantity,  and  there 
will  be  a  great  increase  of  the  oils  employed  in  lamps  and 
for  oiling  machinery. 

To  obtain  these  results,  not  a  little  will  depend  upon  the 
form  of  the  retort,  and  the  mode  by  which  the  oily  vapors 
generated  in  it  are  condensed.  The  retort  which  will  per- 
mit the  charge  of  coal  to  be  equally  heated  throughout,  is 
best ;  for  if  the  heat  be  strong  on  one  part  of  the  charge, 
and  weak  on  another  part,  the  former  will  produce  perma- 
nent gas  and  impure  oils,  while  the  latter  has,  perhaps,  a 
temperature  too  low  to  produce  oils  at  all.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  revolving  retorts,  which  keep  the  charge  in 
constant  motion,  have  been  introduced. 


Betort— Slevation. 


8caU 

Betort  and  Main.— Section. 


'^  Full  descriptions  of  all  the  retorts  and  ovens  which  have 
been  experimented  with,  tried,  patented,  used,  and  in  use, 

*  The  couiposition  of  benzole  ia  C„.  H*.    That  of  eupioD  is  C».  H«. 


* 


HBTORTS. 


61 


for  distilling  oils  from  coals,  would  occupy  too  much  space. 
For  such  descriptions  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  Ame- 
rican, English,  and  French  records  of  patent  inventions. 
Great  as  their  number  is,  it  is  still  increasing.  Many  per- 
sons besides  chemists,  who  are  concerned  in  this  kind  of 
manufacture,  and  tyros  in  the  art,  have  a  fancy  for  some 
novelty  in  which  neither  philosophy  nor  chemistry  can  dis- 
cover any  merit,  and  vast  sums  of  money  have  been 
wasted  in  seeking  the  talisman  that  would  convert  every- 
thing into  oil. 

Horizontal  D-shaped  retorts,  of  large  size,  two  or  three 
being  heated  over  one  furnace,  have  proved  satisfactory ; 


lievolvlDg  Betort— Front  Eluvatlon. 


and  in  some  instances  they  have  taken  the  places  of  the 
revolving  cylinders.    They  may  be  made  of  iron  or  clay. 


62 


REVOLVING  RETORTS. 


They  ftre  simple  in  construction,  and  readily  charged  and 
discharged.  They  may  be  made  from  thirty  to  forty-five 
inches  in  width,  and  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length.  The 
latter  size  will  distil  three  charges  of  cannel  coal,  of  4501bs. 
each,  in  twenty-four  hours,  at  a  heat  not  exceeding  780* 
Fah.  Forty  of  these  retoils  and  more  may  discharge  into 
one  main,  from  which  the  gas  is  conveyed  to  a  gasometer, 
to  be  afterwards  used  for  fuel  or  for  lighting.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  the  discharge-pipes  leading  from  these  retorts  to 
the  main  should  not  be  less  than  eight  inches  in  diameter, 


BeTolring  R«tort— I'lan. 

to  prevent  pressure  and  insure  safety ;  and  they  should  b? 


IS 


REVOLVING  RfcTORTS. 


68 


inserted  into  the  end  of  tlie  retort  opposite  the  head  and 
furnace,  and  upon  a  level  with  the  Uf)per  part  of  the  charge. 
The  main  itself  should  be  three  feet  in  diameter. 


REVOLVING    RETORTS. 

Revolving  retorts  were  employed  by  Gingembre,  of 
France,*  and  by  others,  many  years  ago,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  coal  gas ;  but  from  their  cost  and  liability  to  get 
out  of  order,  they  were  discarded.  Since  January,  1868, 
several  patents  have  been  granted  in  the  United  States  for 
this  kind  of  retort,  as  being  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
oils  from  coals,  shales,  etc.  In  some  establishments  they 
are  now  in  use ;  in  others  they  have  been  replaced  by  large 
D-shaped  stationary  retorts. 

They  are  iron  or  clay  cylinders,  frequently  six  feet  in 
diameter  and  eight  feet  long,  sustained  upon  an  axle  at 
each  end,  the  vapors  passing  through  the  axle  opposite  the 
furnace,  or  head,  where  they  are  charged  through  a  man- 
hole in  the  usual  manner.  They  are  kept  in  motion  by 
machinery  propelled  by  steam,  making  two  or  more  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  The  advantages  of  the  revolving 
retort  are,  that  the  charge  being  constantly  agitated  by  the 
motion  of  the  cylinder,  every  part  of  the  material  is  from 
time  to  time  brought  in  contact  with  a  heated  surface,  so 
that  it  is  exhausted  in  much  less  time  than  it  could  be  in  a 
stationary  retort;  thus,  also,  there  is  a  saving  of  fuel.  A 
retort  of  the  above  dimensions  will  run  six  charges  of  one 
ton  each,  in  twenty-four  hours,  of  ordinary  cannel  coals. 
The  objections  urged  against  them,  by  those  who  have 
given  them  a  trial,  are  their  cost  and  liability  to  get  out  of 
order.     They  also  grind  the  coal  to  a  powder,  which,  by 

*  Brevett  d' Invention,  vol.  ix.,  p.  235. 


64 


BRICK  0VKN9. 


being  carried  along  with  the  oily  vapors,  is  apt  to  fill  up 
the  condensing  worm,  and  its  admixture  with  the  oil 
increastfs  the  cost  of  purification.  But  the  rapidity  by 
which  tliey  distil  the  coal,  and  the  saving  of  fuel,  arc  cer- 
tain rosulta;  and  the  ingenuity  of  numerous  inventors  may 
hereafter  relieve  them  from  the  above  drawbacks. 

The  revolving  retort  cannot  be  employed  in  the  decom- 
position of  Albert  coal,  nor  any  of  the  softer  bitumens. 
These  substances  melt,  and  adhere  to  the  iron  closely,  and 
therefore  cannot  be  agitated  like  dry  coals,  when  they  are 
heated. 

With  the  above-mentioned  objects  in  view,  namely,  the 
agitation  of  the  material  while  it  is  exposed  to  heat,  oscil- 
lating retorts  have  been  recommended  and  patented.  Iron 
bars  arc  fixed  longitudinally  in  the  cylinders)  to  prevent 
the  charge  from  sliding,  and  to  insure  its  rolling  over. 

BRICK  OVENS. 

Brick  ovens  have  been  introduced  to  decompose  coals 
and  produce  oils.  They  are  made  of  fire-brick,  and  laid 
in  fire-clay.  Their  form  is  such,  that  the  heat  is  distri- 
buted over  a  large  surface.  These  ovens  are  incapable  of 
resisting  pressure,  and  they  are  apt  to  crack  and  grow 
leaky.  If  they  are  ever  found  to  be  economical,  it  will  be 
in  situations  where  coals  and  coal  shales  are  cheap  and 
plenty,  and  where  the  loss  of  vapor  and  fuel  are  not  things 
of  large  account. 

VERTICAL  RET0KT3. 


In  France,  at  Mehlam  on  the  Khine,  and  other  places  in 
Europe,  upright  retorts  are  used.     They  have  been  em- 


«r^- 


VERTICAL  RETORTS. 


66 


ployed  in  Irolnnd  f»jr  the  distillation  of  peat.  They  are 
fillod  from  nlwve,  and  when  the  charge  is  exhausted  it  is 
drawn  frt)m  bonoatli.  They  require  a  great  deal  of  fuel. 
The  yield  of  oil  is  small  and  impure.  • 

Patents  have  been  granted  in  the  United  States  for 
several  vertical  retorts,  in  whioh  improvements  are  sup- 
posetl  to  have  been  made  upon  those  used  in  the  Old 
Country ;  but  in  none  of  these  have  the  advantages  sought 
for  been  obtained.  It  is  obvious  that  the  discharge  of  the 
gases  from  which  the  oils  are  condensed  must  take  place 
above  the  mass  of  the  material  in  the  retort.  The  sooner 
the  oily  vapor  of  the  charge  is  removed  from  the  retort 
and  condensed,  the  greater  will  bo  the  amount  of  oil  pro- 
duced ;  for  if  that  vapor  is  exposed  to  a  heat  equal  to  ♦Imt 
by  which  it  Was  Hrst  formed,  it  will  itself  be  decompc  seii, 
and  a  part  of  it  converted  into  permanent  gases.  Again, 
the  vapor  first  formed  will  be  deprived  of  a  part  of  its 
hydrogen,  and  there  will  be  a  diminution  in  the  quantity 
of  lamp  oil. 

Agitators,  or  stirrers  in  retorts,  have  been  introduced 
for  the  purposes  before- mentioned.  Count  de  llompesch 
patented  and  used  an  Archimedean  screw  nearly  twenty 
years  ago.  By  means  of  this  screw  the  material  was  agi- 
tated, and  finally  discharged  at  the  end  of  bis  retort. 
Several  American  ptUents  have  been  grant  J  Tor  machinery 
to  stir  or  agittite  the  charge  of  material,  both  in  horizontal 
and  upright  retorts  during  its  distillation.  In  situations 
where  coal  is  abundant  the  value  of  these  inventions 
will  be  carefully  weighed  agaiiist  the  complexity  of  the. 
machinery  and  its  constant  wear. 

In  order  to  apply  a  certain  degree  of  heat  to  the  sub- 
stances undergoing  distillation,  baths  of  fusible  metal  have 
been  placed  in  retorts  and  stills,  the  melting  point  of  the 


fi 


CLAY  RETORTS. 


metal  being  adjusted  to  the  degree  of  beat  required ;  but 
the  experienced  distiller  calls  for  no  such  aid. 


CLAY  RETORTS. 

Clay  retorts  were  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas 
many  years  ago,  and  a  contest  has  long  been  carried  on 
between  their  advocates  and  those  who  prefer  iron  for  that 
purpose.  lu  Europe  the  clay  retort  is  gradually  coming 
into  use.  In  Scotland  the  old  iron  cylinder  is  now  seldom 
seen  in  gas  works.  The  manufacturers  of  coal  gas  in  the 
United  States  are  yearly  submitting  clay  to  the  test;  but  up 
to  the  present  time,  of  all  the  i-etorts  in  operation,  a  very 
few  are  composed  of  that  material.  When  the  clay  cylin- 
der is  first  charged,  gas  escapes  through  the  IBne  fissures 
opened  by  the  baking  of  the  substance.  These  openings, 
however,  are  soon  closed  with  carbon,  and  the  retort  is 
perfect.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  clay  retort  is  its  dura- 
bility. In  the  distillation  of  coals  for  the  production  of 
oils,  they  are,  doubtless,  valuable,  and  the  ordinary  mecha- 
nic of  the  country  understands  the  methods  by  which  they 
are  put  in  working  order.  In  their  use,  it  should  always 
be  understood  that  they  will  not  withstand  as  much  pres- 
sure as  iron,  and  therefore  their  discharge-pipes  should  be 
large,  and  their  condensing  apparatus  open  and  free. 

Among  the  numerous  means  applied  to  the  extraction  of 
oils  from  coals,  coke  furnaces  merit  some  attention.  The 
cutting  and  piling  up  of  mounds  of  wood,  covering  them 
•with  earth,  and  firing  them  to  obtain  charcoal,  is  a  process 
familiar  to  almost  every  one.  In  this  operation  all  the 
volatile  products  of  the  wood  escape  in  gas  and  smoke, 
and  are  lost.  Within  the  past  century  charcoal  furnaces 
have  been  invented  by  which  those  volatile  products  are 


COKE  OYENS. 


collected,  and  the  distillation  of  wood  has  produced  a  new 
class  of  substances ;  the  chief 'of  which  are  acetic  acid, 
pyroxylic  spirit,  creasote,  picaraar,  copnomor,  paraffin, 
enpion,  etc. 

In  China,  Bussia,  and  Sweden,  the  carbonization  of  wood 
is  effected  in  pits,  or  furnaces  not  dissimilar  to  those  for 
which  patents  have  been  granted  in  this  country.  The 
furnace  is  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone,  and  the 
receptacle  for  the  tar  is  at  its  side.  Ooal  is  converted  into 
coke  in  a  similar  manner.  In  Europe  coke  has  been  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.  In  Great  Britain 
it  is  burned  on  railways  to  avoid  the  smoke  produced  by 
coals,  and  coking  furnaces  are  in  constant  use  for  its  sup- 
ply. In  1781  the  Earl  of  Dundonald  obtained  oils  by  heat- 
ing a  quantity  of.  coals  in  a  coke  furnace.  The  oils  were 
condensed  from  the  expelled  vapors,  and  coke  remained. 


■xhanst  and  Oondenwr.— SeoUon.   Scale  of  Coke  OTen.— Plan  and  Section. 

The  manufacture  of  coal  gas  now  supplies  vast  quantities 
of  coke,  and  the  oils  are  called  coal  tar. 


COKE  OVENS. 


Iri  August,  1853,  two  patents  were  granted  in  England 
for  upright  coking  furnaces,  the  object  being  to  obtain 
crude  oils,  and  not  coke.  In  these,  and  in  other  instances, 
the  coals  are  produced  in  large  perpendicular  cones,  or 
cylinders  of  masonry.  A  fire  is  lighted  beloW,  and  as  it 
advances  upwards  the  volatile  parts  of  the  material  are 
driven  off  by  the  heat  produced  by  itself,  and  without  the 
aid  of  any  external  heat.  'Discharge  pipes  are  fixed  at  the 
top  of  the  furnace,  and  communicate  with  a  condenser  in 
which  the  oils  are  formed. 

The  first  objection  that  presents  itself  to  this  method  of 
obtaining  oils  is  the  admission  of  air  to  the  material,  by 
which  combustion  rather  than  distillation  is  the  result.    To 


Coke  Oven.— Section. 


afford  a  remedy  for  this  difiiculty  Mr.  Little  obtained  an 


COKE  OVENS. 


69 


English  patent  in  1854,  the  invention  of  which  is  to  draw, 
or  drive  through  the  fire  a  blast  ol  air,  which  is  then  said 
to  be  "iumcc?,"  ordeprivod  of  its  free  oxygen,  so  that  the 
combustion  of  the  material  is  avoided,  and  the  distillation 
carried  on  by  the  heat  afforded  by  the  gases  emanating 
from  the  material  itself.  In  this  process  the  charge  con- 
tained in  the  coking  furnace  is  first  fired  at  the  bottom, 
then  a  current  of  air  is  drawn  through  the  fire  and  the 
material  in  the  furnace  by  an  aspirator  or  exhausting  pump, 
the  oily  vapors  being  drawn  into  condensing  chambers,  or 
worms,  in  the  manner  practised  in  ordinary  distillations. 
An  upward  distillation  has  been  opposed  on  the  ground 
that  the  oil,  which  at  first  would  be  at  the  top  of  the  fur- 


BVt. 


Coke  Oven.— Plan. 


nace,  falls  back,  and  undergoes  repeated  decompositions 
before  its  vapors  finally  escape.     In  practice  this  objection 


70 


COKE  OVENS. 


ia  groundless,  for  if  the  vapors  from  which  the  oils  are 
condensed  are  light,  they  make  their  exit  immediately ;  if 
they  are  heavy,  and  condnnse  in  the  furnace,  their  oils  are 
improved  by  further  decomposition. 

Patents  have  been  granted  in  the  United  States 
for  similar  coke  furnace?,  in  one  of  these  the  current  of 
air  is  directed  downwards  through  the  fire,  material,  and 
furnace,  by  a  jet  of  steam  thrown  into  the  discharging  pipe 
below.  After  a  wood  fire  has  been  kindled  at  the  top  of 
the  furnace,  and  a  stratum  of  hot  coals  is  spread  over  the 
charge,  a  downward  current  of  air  is  started,  and  continued 
until  all  the  volatile  matter  is  expelled  from  the  material. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  reversing  the  air  current 
is  a  matter  of  any  importance  in  the  operation ;  the  chief 
object  being  to  force  it  through  heated  bodies,  and  thereby 
deprive  it  of  a  part  of  its  oxygen  before  it  reaches  the 
charge.  Ingenious  as  this  method  of  distillation  really  is, 
its  economy  is  doubtful,  for  sufficient  heat  cannot  be 
applied  to  the  charge  in  the  furnace  without  the  admission 
of  oxygen,  and  that  oxygen,  when  admitted,  results  in 
more  or  less  actual  combustion,  which  reduces  the  quantity 
of  oils.  This  method  has  been  extensively  tested  by  the 
New  York  Kerosene  Oil  Company,  who,  according  to  their 
published  reports,  distilled  sixty -eight  and  one-seventh  gal- 
lons of  merchantable  oils  and  paraffin  from  one  ton  of 
Boghead  coal.  By  the  large  D-shaped  retort  seventy  gal- 
lons of  such  oils  can  be  obtained. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  this  question  presents  itself — 
What  is  the  cheapest,  most  efficient,  and  economical  retort 
for  manufactories  of  coal  oils?  Perhaps  foremost  in  the 
reply  stands  the  large  horizontal  D-shaped  retort — next  the 
revolving  retort,  which  for  running  the  greatest  quantity  of 
oil  in  the  shortest  space  of  time  stands  unrivalled. 


CONDENSERS. 


71 


Next  in  importance  to  the  form  and  the  mode  of  apply- 
ing heat  to  the  retorts  is  the  condenser,  or  cooling  appara- 
tus, in  which  the  gases  and  vapors  of  the  material  assume 
the  liquid  form.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule, 
that  the  sooner  the  lighter  vapors  generated  in  the  retort 
are  withdrawn  from  it  and  cooled,  the  greater  will  be  the 
yield  of  oil.    The  discharge  pipes  of  the  retorts  employed 


Crudo  Oil  Condenser.— Plan. 


in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas  are  upright  cylinders,  in 
which  a  part  of  the  volatile  products  of  the  distilled  coal 


&v.:..j-.';     .  *.-_; 


■A..-^  .■jr..."-„-*i^i',.  --..  '..^»,\^i:J 


CONDENSERS. 


are  cjohdensed,  and  fall  back  into  the  retort,  where  they  ai'e 
decomjiosed,  ana  the  quar  tity  of  gas  thereby  increaaetl, 

By  this  management  the  ^ijas  is  made  by  the  reduction  of 
the  hydrogen  of  thr  '  oal  tar,  which,  consequently,  contdns 


Crude  Oii  Condenser. 


Sea  Ik. 


End  Gleyation, 

much  carbon,  and  is  thereby  rendered  unfit  for  the  manu- 
facture of  oils  for  lamps.*    The  exit,  or  discharge  pipes, 

*  See  table  of  lioraologous  ootnpounda 


STILLS. 


78 


should  therefore  open  outwards  from  the  retort,  as  near 
to  the  charge  undergoing  decomposition  as  may  be  conve- 
nient. 

Again,  pressure  upon  the  vapors  generated,  and  the 
retort  itself,  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The 
dipping  of  the  discharge  pipe  in  a  main,  to  seal  L  against  a 
return  of  gas,  causes  a  pressure  according  to  the  extent  of 
that  dip.  The  greater  the  dip  the  greater  the  pressure,  and 
the  quantity  of  oil  will  be  diminished  accordingly.  It  is 
on  this  account  that  exhausting  pumps  have  been  applied 
to  the  gas  pipe  leading  from  the  main.  The  effect  is  to 
exhaust  the  charge  in  one  half  of  the  time  usually  required 
for  that  purpose,  and  with  less  heat  in  the  furnace.  But 
exhausting  pumps  arc  expensive,  and,  when  employed  as 
above,  require  to  be  kept  constantly  in  motion.  Therefore 
"when  the  crude  oil  is  made  at  the  mouth  of  a  coal  mine 
their  economy  will  afford  matter  for  consideration. 

The  condenser  may  consist  of  the  common  worm  gene- 
rally used  in  distilleries — a  serpo-tttine  pipe  passing  through 
a  cistern  of  water,  or  an  opoix -chamber,  all  of  which  mv^sl 
be  kept  constantly  cold  bv  an  influx  of  water. 

But  when  much  paraffin  is  pix^sent  it  is  ncwssarv  tv> 
keep  the  water  at  a  t-e  ipemturo  of  70"^  or  ^>'*  to  prewnt 
the  paraffin  frora  coolii^^  And  obstr^iv>Huig  the  apj\iratus. 
The  gas  that  remair^  A?Wr  V)>e  condensation  has  been  coai- 
pleted  may  Iv  oo3\vtv\l  iu  gasometers,  and  em|>}oyed  for 
illuminate  ^  ;^  po*}(S — to  atKvnl  heat  for  the  subsequetU 
distilla6K>n  oi  the  otlSs,  or  to  produce  stcvam. 


STILLS, 


T^  vsffwty  of  stills,  and  the  contrivances  applied  to 
— *  ft*  the  distillation  of  ooal  and  other  oils,  equals  that 


7i' 


STILLS. 


of  retorts.  Experience  has  led  to  the  almost  general  adop- 
tion of  cast  iron  stills  for  those  purposes.  They  have  been 
made  with  bottoms  concave  upwards  and  with  hemisphe- 
rical tops,  with  bottoms  concave  downwards  and  flat  tops, 
some  broad  and  flat,  others  high  and  cylindrical — some 
have  been  placed  in  steam  jackets — many  are  exposed  to 
the  naked  fire.  The  different  opinions  prevailing  among 
the  manufacturers  prevent  any  settled  form  being  esta- 
blished. Stills  made  of  boiler-plate  iron  have  been  tried ; 
but  when  a  high  heat  is  required,  and  they  are  exposed  to 
the  direct  .action  of  the  fire,  they  are  soon  destroyed,  or 
commence  leaking  at  the  rivets.  When  the  heat  exceeds 
660°,  which  is  necessary  in  the  distillation  of  the  heavier 
oils  and  paraffin,  they  are  in  danger  unless  they  are  pro- 
tected by  the  admission  of  steam,  and  guarded  against  the 
fire  .ii  tJae  furnace.  Whether  the  still  be  of  cast  or  sheet 
inati^  it  is  always  urwafe  to  rtin  the  oil  down  so  as  to  "  coke^^ 

in  oarder  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  oils,  stirrers  have  been 
fiimdi  in.  the  stil  to  agitate  the  charge  during  its  distilla- 
HiMti.  Ifce  dSam  of  these  stirrers  will  ever  be  to  render  the 
tftiniilfliliwii  mam  or  less  imperfect,  by  lifting  the  impurities 
«|»wrar&  into  the  cuanrent  of  vap'or  rushing  outwards  inio 
the  wGarm.  Stills  wjifili  double  necks  have  been  tried,  but 
Tdtkrait  any  real  advantage.  Some  have  preferred  a  large 
stilL  and  they  have  been  made  to  contain  three  thousand 
galkajb.  Such  w.  Us  are  more  liable  to  accident,  and  dan- 
gawwp  m  "sne  (  v'  ,  i  fracture  than  smaller  ones,  and  have 
no  asfjernority  iiiL  ausprd  to  time  in  working. 

The  tn»t  (ifllffiMK>n  of  the  oils  may  be  carried  on  con- 
tinuonsi'r  by  anamjiitting  into  the  still  a  small  stream  after 
tAie  heat  is  up  aad  the  distillate  begins  to  flow  from  the 
wcsm.     Bat  "diis  mode  requires  more  than  an  ordinary 


STILLS. 


75 


degree  of  heat  to  compensate  for  the  caloric  taken  by  the 
inflowing  oil  to  bring  it  up  to  the  distilling  point.  Sim- 
plicity of  machinery  and  steadiness  of  operation  are  always 
desirable ;  on  this  account,  for  reasons  already  stated,  and 
from  many  actual  trials,  the  author  recommends  that  the 


still.— Section. 


A  Oooseneck. 
S  Borne. 
C  Kettle. 


d  Valve  on  Oooseneck. 
«  Steam  pipe. 
/  Blow-off  pipe. 
ff  Manhole. 


largest  stills,  and  those  employed  for  distilling  the  crude 
oils  as  they  come  from  the  retorts  or  oil  springs,  shall  not 


i>i.Ji    \  t^  li  J.    -t       ^    .J^aJL'    *jtii*  h3<ii'-4 


re 


8TILL8. 


exceed  in  contents  nixteen  h  mdred  gallonB,  and  ob  there 
is  gejierallj'  a  Iosb  on  the  first  distillntion  of  ten  or  twelve 
per  cent,  in  carbon  and  imriiritics,  the  working  contents  of 
the  refining  stills  need  not  exceed  fourteen  hundred  gal- 
lons. The  diameter  of  the  largest  stills  may  be  eight  feet 
six  inches,  with  a  height  of  four  feet  six  inches.  The 
crown  should  be  moderately  concave  upwards  to  the  neck. 
Those  stills  must  be  carefully  protected  against  the  direct 
action  of  the  fire  by  arches  of  fire-brick.  Common  or 
superheated  steam  may  be  introduced  into  them  through 
large  rose  jets  opening  above,  or  into  the  charge.  Steam 
always  facilitates  their  operation. 

In  the  cut  on  p.  75,  a  valve  is  represented  upon  the 
gooseneck.  This  has  been  used  by  some  persons  to  enable 
them  to  blow  out  the  tarry  contents  of  the  still  by  the  pipe, 
/  by  admitting  steam  by  the  pipe,  e,  closing  the  valve,  c?, 
and  opening  the  valve  or  the  pipe,  /  When  the  still  bot- 
toms are  made  convex,  however,  the  ordinary  pipe  and 
cock  can  be  used  to  draw  oflf  the  residuum.    The  draw-off 


8UU.— Flanged  .    .torn. 


pipe  may  be  of  wrought  iron  of  two  inches  diameter 


STILL  AND  COyDENSER. 


77 


inserted  into  the  side  of  the  still  by  a  screw,  and  secured 
on  its  inner  end  by  a  locknut.  The  cock  may  be  iron  with 
a  brass  plug. 

Where  high  temperatures  are  required,  so  a*-  *o  distil 
various  oils  to  a  pitch  or  coke,  the  still  represented  by  the 
cut,  page  76,  has  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose.  The 
bottom,  A,  is  two  inches  thick,  and  is  flanged  to  the  side,  B, 
with  three-quarter  inch  bolts,  six  inches  apart.  The  sides 
are  flanged  to  the  dome  or  cover,  c,  in  the  same  way.  The 
sides  form  a  cylinder  when  cast,  and  the  outlet  pipe,  D, 
three  inches  in  diameter  and  one  foot  long,  is  cast  with  it. 
This  still,  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  four  feet  deep,  was 
used  by  Henry  Gesner  in  distilling  candle  tar,  and  by  the 
author  in  distilling  coal  tar.  In  both  cases  the  distillation 
was  carried  on  until  a  coke  remained,  and  the  heat  was  so, 
that  upon  looking  into  the  furnace  the  concave  bottom  of 
the  still  was  of  a  bright  red  color.  When  the  bottom  was 
burned  out,  which  was  the  case  every  two  months,  a  new 
bottom  was  bolted  to  the  sides. 

The  d'''»gram  on  the  following  page  exhibits  an  arrange- 
ment of  still  and  worm,  or  condenser,  in  section.  The  still 
is  shown  with  a  loose  bottom,  but  that  is  not  absolutely 
necessary.    The  sides  and  bottom  may  form  one  casting. 

The  still.  A,  is  a  cylinder  of  cast  iron  seven  feet  in  diame- 
ter and  one  inch  in  thickness,  four  feet  deep,  sitting  in  a 
groove,  V,  which  is  carried  around  the  botton;,  B.  This 
bottom  is  one  and  a  half  inches  thick.  The  doiw\  c,  is 
low,  not  rising  more  than  one  foot  five  inch  3  ab<jve  the 
level  of  the  top  of  the  side.  The  gooseneck,  d,  is  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  one  foot  three  inches  wide,  where 
it  is  fastened  to  the  dome,  and  tapering  to  eight  inches 
where  it  joins  the  pipe  which  connects  it  with  the  worm,  e. 
The  pipe  connecting  the  gooseneck  and  worm  tapers  from 


-......-Ai-.^:-^     M. 


.78 


BTILL  AND  CONDENSER. 


STILL  AND  CONDENSER. 


7» 


eight  to  four  inohca  whcio  it  joins  tho  worm,  E.  The  worm 
is  a  spiral  coil  of  wrought  iron  pipe,  fastened  securely  by 
iron  stays,  f,  into  tho  worm  tank,  o.  This  tank  is  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and  six  feet  deep.  The  worm  coil  con- 
tains one  hundrctl  feet  of  pipe,  tapering  from  four  inches 
in  diameter  at  H,  to  two  and  a  half  inches  at  tho  tail-pipe, 
I.  It  is  nmdo  by  joining  equal  lengths  of  four  inches, 
three  inches,  and  two  and  a  half  inch  pipe.  Where  tho 
tail-pipe  pas^ea  through  the  worm  tank  it  is  secured  and 
leakage  around  the  pipe  prevented  by  two  locknuts,  one  on 
tho  inside  and  the  other  on  the  outside  of  tho  stave,  a 
thread  being  cut  on  the  pipe  long  enough  to  pass  through 
tho  stave  and  afford  room  for  tho  locknuts  to  be  applied. 
The  worm  tank  is  seven  feet  six  inches  in  diameter  and  six 
feet  deep,  made  of  three  inch  staves,  and  bottom,  and 
hooped  with  four  hoops,  three  inches  wide  and  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  thick. 

The  still  is  heated  by  the  furnace,  J,  when  open  fire  is 
used.  The  fire  bars,  k,  are  four  feet  in  length,  and  cover 
one  foot  six  inches  in  width.  The  furnace  door,  L,  is  one 
foot  four  inches  high,  and  one  foot  three  inches  wide.  The 
ashpit,  M,  corresponds  with  it  in  size.  The  water  pan,  N, 
corresponds  with  the  ashpit  in  width,  and  is  six  inches  deep. 
Tho  length  of  ashpit  .md  pan  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
furnace  bars.  The  space,  o,  around  the  still  is  four  inches 
wide,  and  tho  walls,  p,  are  one  brick  or  eight  inches  thick. 
The  throttles,  Q,  are  eight  inches  deep  and  four  inches 
wide.  They  are  small  flues  which  distribute  the  heat 
around  the  still.  The  still  bottom  resta  upon  fire  tiles 
which  are  laid  in  a  circle  to  suit  it.  These  tiles  cover  the 
throttles.  The  bridge,  s,  prevents  the  heat  from  escaping 
at  once,  by  the  flue,  T,  to  the  chimney,  and  brings  it  for- 
ward around  the  front  of  the  still.     The  wall,  u,  is  the 


80 


PETROLEUM  STILL. 


division  wall  between  the  still  house  and  refinery.  (See 
drawings  of  refineries.)  ^j .-  -,   ;:,,.,  r,     ;^  ,,  ^ 

In  some  factories  the  wall  around  the  still  is  made  in 
sections,  so  as  to  be  easily  removed  when  a  new  kettle  or 
bottom  is  to  be  inserted.  This  plan  is  the  most  convenient, 
though  the  most  expensive  at  the  outset. 

The  still  commonly  employed  by  the  American  petro- 
leum refiners,  is  shown  in  the  diagram  annexed.    It  is  a 


Common  Petroleum  Still. 

cylinder  of  boiler  iron  twelve  feet  long  and  nine  feet  in 
diameter.  Its  working  contents  are  eighty  barrels,  or 
three  thousand  two  hundred  gallons.  The  gooseneck  is 
A  four-inch  elbow  connected  with  four-inch  wrought  iron 
pipe.  The  draw-off  cock  is  at  the  bottom  and  end  furthest 
from  the  fire,  which  is  applied  much  in  the  same  way  as  to 
a  steam  boiler.  The  plates  are  in  twelve  feet  lengths  and 
present  no  riveted  seams  to  the  action  of  the  fire.  The 
use  of  wrought  iron  for  stills  is  perhaps  the  most  economi- 
cal in  the  aggregate.  Cast  iron  is  exposed  to  the  danger  of 
fracture  when  it  is  cooled  suddenly.  A  current  of  air  from 
an  open  furnace  door  will  often  cause  the  bottoms  to 


iti...    -...iiiii^-.   ■■Zik'.i-*.!   ,-.  .-^^f  ;„ 


.,.!.■ 


WASHEBS  OF  AOITATOBS. 


crack.    In  sucli  case,  the  mode  of  repairing  is  by  a  plate 

of  boiler  iron  being  bolted  down  over  the  fracture. 

'    There  have  been  many  alleged  improvements  in  the 


f  J 

•' :  / 


cOilll 


Vertlc«i  ■'Va^her.— Sectlwu 


construction  of  stills.    Most  of  them  involve  either  care, 


82 


WASHERS  OR  AGITATORS. 


which  can  hardly  be  expected  from  the  o:  Jinarj  workmen ; 
or  the  use  of  expensive  methods  of  obtaining  heat.  Sim- 
plicity in  construc'iion  and  in  working  must  be  the  prime 


Horizontal  Washer  and  Tanks. — End  Elevation  and  Section. 

consideration  of  the  manufacturer.     Unless  the  distillation 
is  80  regulated  that  every  twenty -four  hours  produces  a 


-  L.iaiiM.-«!.!^L ,  Ji..  ^ 


WASHERS  OR  AGITATORS. 


88 


certain  amount  of  oil,  no  correct  idea  of  the  profits  of  oil 
refining  can  be  bad ;  and  the  still,  being  most  apt  to  be 


llorizoutal  Washer  and  Tanks. — LongitiKlinal  Section. 

out  of  order,  should  be  of  the  most  simple  form,  and  admit 
of  cheap  and  easy  repair. 


.--    ^.  ■>.-■  .^-  .1.-^  .>j.-...^.-t^ 


84 


AIR  AGITATOR. 


WASHERS   OR  AGITATORS.  i 

These  may  be  vertical  as  on  page  81,  or  horizontal  aa  on 
pages  82  and  83. 

The  vertical  washer  is  of  light  boiler  iron,  having  a  con- 
cave bottom  to  assist  the  drawing  off  of  the  tarry  matter 
thrown  down  by  the  reagents. 

A  shaft  with  fans  of  wood  or  iron,  placed  obliquely,  as 
in  n,  ship's  screw,  is  turned  by  gearing.  Breaks  of  wood, 
six  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  are  secured  to  the  side. 
These  serve  to  break  the  current  produced  by  the  fans,  and 
make  the  agitation  more  thorough.  The  bottom  should  bo 
surrounded  by  a  steam-jacket  to  admit  of  its  being  kept  at 
90°  Fah.  when  in  use. 

The  horizontal  washer  is  a  very  good  one,  but  not  quite 
so  simple  as  the  one  just  described.    It  was  used  by  the 


Air  Agitator. 


author  in  connexion  with  a  system  of  tanks  for  treating 
coal  tar  products.    The  pump  conveyed  the  oil  to  be 


^  _  .  'rij^.',-.  ■ ; 


Aia  AGITATOR. 


88 


treated  to  the  horizontal  chamber,  which  was  lined  with 
lead,  and  had  a  shaft  running  through  it  with  arms  or 
beaters  of  wood.  The  oil,  after  being  agitated  with  acid, 
was  let  down  into  the  tank  below  to  l^e  settled,  while  the 
agitator  was  set  to  work  upon  another  charge. 

An  air  agitator,  shown  on  preceding  page,  has  been 
found  to  be  the  most  convenient  and  thorough.  It  con- 
sists of  a  vessel  of  thin  boiler  iron,  A,  surrounded  at  the 
bottom  and  part  of  the  sides  by  a  steam-jacket,  b.  A  two- 
inch  wrought  iron  pipe,  o,  communicates  with  a  blowing 
fan,  such  as  are  used  for  small  blast  furnaces,  or  with  an 
air-pump.  The  pipe,  c,  enters  a  perH»vatoc\  iron  vessel,  ^, 
or  may  be  left  coiled  with  its  end  open  on  the  bottom  of 
the  agitator.  This  arrangement  leaves  the  interior  of  the 
agitator  clear  of  all  obstructions.  A  steam-pipe  and  valve 
admit  steam  to  the  jacket.  The  drip-cock,  G,  carries  otf 
the  condensed  steam.  The  cock,  o,  is  the  outlet  for  the 
oil  after  agitation,  where  a  settling  vessel  is  used,  or  the 
oil  is  discharged  into  another  agitator  as  in  coal  oil  refin- 
ing. (See  drawings,  of  Refineries.)  The  pipe,  i,  is  the 
inlet  from  the  pump.  Tlie  cock,  h,  is  for  drawing  off  the 
acid  residuum.  The  cut  represents  an  agitator  seven  feet 
in  diamoter,  and  six  feet  deep. 


SUPEKHEATED  STEAM  APPARATUS. 


Steam  can  be  superheated  for  distilling  purposes  by  any 
mode  which  involves  its  passing  over  hot  surfaces  before 
e^  -ering  the  charge  of  oil  in  the  still.  A  bench  of  three 
ordinary  gas  retorts,  connected  with  pipes,  would  form  a 
very  good  superheater. 

In  the  above  diagram  is  an  arrangement  for  superheating 
which  has  been  found  satisfactory.    A  series  of  cast  iron 


86 


SUPERHEATED  STEAM  APPARATUS. 


pipes,  B,  four  feet  in  length,  two  inches  in  diameter,  metal 
two  inches  thick,  slightly  arched,  and  connected  by. return 
bends,  d,  are  placed  in  an  oven,  A.    The  damper,  L,  regu- 


rc 


s: 


:k 


Superbeatod  Steam  Apparnt  <,s. 


lates  the  heat.  The  fire  is  prevented  from  striking  directly 
upon  the  pipe,  by  fire  tiles  placed  under  them,  with  small 
flues  passing  through  them  between  the  pipes.  The  inle(» 
of  steam  is  regulated  by  the  valve,  e.  A  small  globe  and 
drip  cock,  H,  should  be  placed  on  the  boiter  side  ot  the 


RETORT  rOR  BITUMINOUS  CLAYS,   ETC.  87 

'"    •       '    ■      ■  I    '■      ■;■■•■• •     4-,  .  ■  ■., 

I  1   -    i  .  1,  .  ....  I       .'. 

valve  to  insure  the  drawing  off  of  any  water  before  letting 
steam  into  the  superheater.  The  pipe  connecting  with  the 
boiler  should  enter  a  drum  on  the  top  of.  the  boiler,  so  as 
to  get  the  steam  as  dry  as  possible. 

The  exit  from  the  superheater  is  a  wrought  iron  pipe  of 
the  same  diameter,  carried  into  the  still  at  the  top  and  car- 
ried down  its  side,  and  coiled  once  or  twice  around  its 
bottom.  Tliis  pipe  is  perforated  with  holes  three-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  still  may  be  set  in  sand.  A 
pressure  of  forty  pounds  in  the  boiler  is  the  proper  one  to 
work  with.  A  mode  of  working  the  superheater  is  given 
further  on. 

Andrew  McLean,  of  Liverpool,  has  been  very  successful 


Seoti  on 


Elbvatioi*/ 


Betort  for  Bituminous  Clays,  Aspbaltiim,  eto. 


in  introducing  superheated  steam  in  coal  and  petroleum 

1 


88  RETORT  FOR  BITUMINOUS  CLAYS,  ETC. 

aUtuifviloh.  tlis  hppilcatioti  of  superneateci  steam  to  the 
distillation  of  bituminous  shales  in  Great  Britain,  is  ot 
great  utility. 


Elevati  on 


45=3 


Section 

Eetort  for  Bltuminons  Clays,  Asphaltntn,  etc. 

The  arrangement  on  this  and  the  opposite  p^-ge,  may  be 
of  service  to  those  who  wish  to  distil  bituminous  sand  or 
clays  by  superheated  steam. 

The  retort,  A,  is  set  in  sand  or  brickwork.  A  perforated 
pi])C,  n,  running  up  one  side  and  down  the  other,  conveys 
the  steam  to  the  charge ;  c,  is  a  gutter  or  channel  formed  to 
receive  the  condensed  water  and  vapors,  and  its  end  con- 
tinuation, D,  prevents  their  return  to  the  retort. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION    OF  WOOD. 


89 


CnAPTER  V. 

Products  of  the  distillation  of  wood,  coaia,  aspiialtum.  bitumon,  petroloum, 
and  otiior  substancoa  capable  of  yielding  oils. 

PRODUCTS  OF  THE    DISTILLATION   OF  WOOD. 

The  products  of  wood  distilled  in  close  vessels  are  very 
numerous.  The  resinous  woods  give  results  different  from 
those  not  resinous,  and  each  kind  affords  some  peculiar 
products.  During  distillation  all  yield  more  or  less  car- 
bonic acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  carburetted  hydrogen. 
Charcoal  remains  in  the  retort.  Some  of  the  products  are 
soluble  in  water,  others  are  not.  Of  the  products  soluble 
in  water  and  volatile,  there  are  acetic  acid,  or  pyroligneous 
acid.  This  is  the  most  abundant  liquid.  It  contains  much 
creasote,  and  preserves  meat,  giving  it  at  the  same  time  a 
smoky  taste  and  odor. 

Pyroxylic  spirit. — By  distilling  the  crude  pyroligneous 
acid  a  mixed  liquid  is  obtained,  known  as  pyroxylic  spirit, 
or  hydrated  oxide  of  methyle.  From  this  spirit  Grmelin 
and  Liebig  derived  lignone,  xylite,  xylitic  acid,  naphtha, 
xylitic  oil,  and  resin,  mcsetine,  methol,  mesite,  acetone, 
and  other  volatile  liquids  have  been  obtained,  of  which,  up 
to  the  present  time,  there  is  but  an  imperfect  knowledge 
existing. 


PRODUOtS  Oli,J  MP  yp^A^ILE. 

Among  these  creasote  ie  predominant.     This  is  a  clear 
neutral  oil,  with  an  ocjor  of  smoke,  and  hot  pungent  taste. 


90 


PRODUCTS   ^F  THE    PISTILLATTON  OP  WOOD. 


fp" 


It  evaporates  without  residue,  and  is  turned  to  a  yncr^n 
color  by  being  exposed  to  the  light.  It  is  sohible  in  ether, 
ahjohol,  acetic  acid,  ammonia,  and  potash — is  used  as  a 
styptic,  and  considered  as  a  valuable  remedy  for  the  tooth- 
ache. Creasote  has  also  remarkable  antisej)tic  properties, 
and  is  employed  in  dyeing  and  tanning.  A  distinction 
between  creasote  and  carbolic  acid  has  not  been  clearly 
made  out. 

Plcamar  was  discovered  by  KeichcnbacL,  with  creasote 
in  the  heavy  oil  of  tar.  With  potash,  it  forms  a  crystalline 
compound.  It  is  a  colorless  oil,  having  a  hot,  bitter  taste. 
Its  composition  has  not  be*  ii  clearly  described. 

Cojmomor. — With  the  creasote  and  picamar  the  above 
chemist  discovered  copnomor,  a  limpid,  colorless  oil,  highly 
refractive,  with  an  aromatic  odor  and  styptic  taste.  ^  Nitric 
acid  converts  it  into  oxalic  acid,  nitro-picric  acid,  and  other 
complex  sub'^l.mces,  of  which  little  is  known. 

E^ipion.  ;u<ot:  er  oily,  or  rather  spirituous  liquid,  dis- 
covered '  Reuhenbach  in  the  oil  of  tar,  is  Cj  II4.  It 
is  reaf'''y  pnril'ad  by  distillation,  and  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  0*74:0.  The  author  obtained  it  from  the  tar  of  candle 
manufactories,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  0640,  and  a  boil- 
ing point  of  112*.  It  is,  therefore,  among  the  lightest 
liquids  known.  It  resists  the  action  of  the  strongest  sul- 
phuric acid.  With  nitric  acid  it  forms  several  new  combi- 
nations analogous  to  those  of  benzole.  It  is  perfectly 
colorless,  evaporates  rapidly,  ..uid  to  some  persons  it  has  an 
agreeable  odor.  This  oil  does  not  exist  ready  formed  in 
the  tars,  but  is  produced  by  the  action  of  strong  acids  and 
alkalies  upon  the  distillates  of  crude  oils.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  hydro-carbon  oils,  eupion  includes  a  number  of 
the  members  of  the  homologous  compounds  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen.     It  is  now  frequently  sold  as  benzole,  and  em- 


■-^. 


PARAPFIN. 


91 


ployed  for  making  what  is  called  the  benzole  or  atmo- 
spheric light,  and  for  removing  oil  stains  from  clothes.  A 
number  of  liquids  have  been  classed  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  eupion  ].  they  are  all  hydro-carbons,  and  their 
formula  is  C,  11,  or  Cj  II4,  or  some  multiple  of  it. 

Eupion  may  not  only  be  distilh  fl  ''  om  wood,  but  also 
from  other  substances  capable  of  ?  tars  by  distilla- 

tion.    It  burns  with  a  brilliant  wli:      .«  from  smoke; 

but  it  is  extremely  indammable,  ai     "  ous  liquid  for 

lamps. 


SOLID   PRODUCTS  OBTAINED    FROM    THE    DISTILLATION  OF 

WOOD. 

Paraffin  is  the  name  of  a  white  solid  substance,  or  sil- 
very scales  resembling  wax,  discovered  by  Eeichenbach. 
It  is  formed  in  large  quantities  from  the  petroleum  of 
Kangoon,  and  the  author  has  obtained  it  from  the  Ouachita 
coal  of  Arkansas,  at  the  rate  of  143  lbs.  per  ton.  Coals, 
aaphaltuma,  bitumens,  petroleums,  peat,  and  other  sub- 
stances, afford  paraffin  irom  one  to  five  per  cent,  of  their 
oils.  It  is  most  abundantly  produced  by  the  distillation  of 
wax  with  lime. 

Paraffin  melts  between  110°  and  114°.  Its  specific  gra- 
vity is  0'870,  and  according  to  Lewis  its  formula  is  0^,  II21. 
It  is  readily  made  into  candles,  and  in  a  wick  it  burns  with 
a  beautiful,  clear,  white  light ;  and  the  candles  are  semi- 
transparent.  It  is  indifferent  to  the  strongest  acids  and 
alkalies.  A  number  of  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydro-^ 
gen  have  been  confounded  with  paraffin,  such  as  methy- 
lene, ethylene,  butylene,  etc.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
paraffin  produced  by  the  distillation  of  different  kinds  of 
materials  differs  considerably  on  some  points  of  comparison, 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


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Photogr^hic 

Sciences 

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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

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(716)  872-^503 


92 


PARAFFIN. 


some  having  a  higher,  and  some  a  lower  melting  point. 
These  differences,  however,  may  arise  in  some  degree  from 
the  amount  of  heat  by  which  they  are  produced,  and  their 
treatment  to  render  them  pure.  The  greatest  obstacle  to 
the  application  of  paraffin  for  candles  is  its  low  melting 
point.  It  maybe  mixed  with  bleached  wax,  which  does 
not  fuse,  in  general,  below  154°.  The  cup-like  cavity 
around  the  wick  of  a  pure  paraffin  candle  is  apt  to  yield  to 
the  heat,  and  the  melted  material  overflows,  and  bears  with 
it  the  name  of  "  slut.^-  Doubtless  there  are  improvements 
to  be  made  in  the  manufacture  of  this  beautiful  article. 
Paraffin  does  not  exist  in  coal  ready  formed.  It  is  one  of 
the  combinations  resulting  from  the  interchanges  of  the  ele- 
ments of  bituminous  and  other  bodies  during  their  expo- 
sure to  a  high  temperature.  Paraffin  burns  well  in  the 
kerosene  or  common  coal-oil  lamp,  when  dissolved  in 
hydro-carbon  oils ;  but  in  cold  weather  it  hardens,  and 
will  not  then  ascend  the  wick. 

Cedriret  is  a  volatile  solid  which  forms  red  crystals  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  These  crystals  dissolve  in 
sulphuric  acid,  and  the  red  color  is  changed  to  blue.  The 
blue  tinge  produced  by  reflected  light  of  some  of  the  coal 
oils  in  the  market  owes  its  origin  in  part  to  the  presence  of 
cedriret. 

Pittical. — When  heavy  oil  of  tar  is  neutralized  by  potash, 

and  barytic  water  is  added,  the  solution  is  of  a  deep  blue 

color,  from  the  presence  of  pittical,  which,  when  pure,  is 

like  indigo.     It  color  has  been  fixed  on  cloth,  but  its  manu- 

.  facture  has  not  yet  been  brought  to  perfection. 

Pyroxardhine  is  another  volatile  crystalline  solid,  first 
obtained  by  Scanlan  from  pyroligneous  spirit.  Its  crystals 
are  of  a  fine  yellow  color,  easily  fusible.  Its  composition 
is  represented  to  be  C21  H9  0^. 


■1 


]:0i..  , 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION  OF  COALS. 


93 


Tlie  foregoing  are  the  principal  products  of  the  distil- 
lates of  wood.  Besides  these,  there  are  others  which  are 
constantly  engaging  the  investigations  of  chemists.  They 
are  important,  and  in  time  they  will  probably  be  applied 
to  useful  purposes.  When  the  different  kinds  of  wood, 
the  different  chemical  changes  produced  by  different  de- 
grees of  heat,  and  the  variable  operations  of  re-agents  are 
considered,  it  is  no,t  surprising  that  this  division  of  chemical 
science  should  advance  so  slowly,  and  so  little  should  be 
known  of  the  changes  matter  undergoes  by  seemingly 
invisible  agents.  The  identity  of  most  of  the  before-men- 
tioned products,  with  those  resulting  from  the  distillation 
of  coals,  affords  much  additional  evidence  that  coal  and 
bitumen,  like  wood  and  turpentine,  have  had  one  common 
origin. 

PRODUCT?  OF  THE  DISTILLATION    OF    COALS  AT  A  HIGH 
HEAT,   OR  COAL    TAB. 


Certain  specific  spirits  and  oils  have  been  obtained  by 
chemists  from  coals  and  other  bituminous  bodies.  These 
spirits  and  oils  have  been  distinguished  one  from  the  other 
by  their  densities,  boiling  points,  and  other  characters,  and 
have  received  different  and  sometimes  very  inappropriate 
names.  From  coal  tar  Peckston  distilled  oil  of  tar  and 
spirits  of  tar.  Laurent,  Eeichenbach,  Hoffman,  and  others, 
have  given  the  composition  of  coal  tar.  Wagenman  applied 
himself  to  the  oils  derivable  from  turf,  brown  coal,  and 
bituminous  slate,  from  which  he  obtained  photogen,  solar 
oil,  and  paraffin.  From  the  slate  near  Bielefeld,  En- 
gelbach  distilled  light  oil,  heavy  oil,  butyric  fat,  and 
asphaltic  fat. 

Mansfield  in  his  patent,  registered  in  1847,  describes 


:* 


niWIiH  •titm'  "^lium 


41 
1^ 


94  COAL  TAR. 

alliole,  benzole,  tuluole,  cumole,  cymole,  and  mortuole, 
products  collected  by  him  from  the  distillation  of  coal  tar. 
Among  the  oily  substances  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
coal  tar  the  following  have  been  described  :* — 

Benzole C12  He 

Cumene,  or  cumole     .....  Cis  Hu 

Toluole,  or  toluene C14  Hg 

Naphthalin  .     *  .        .        .        .        .        .  Ca)  Hg 

Anthracene,  or  paranaphthalin  .        .        .  C;io  Hu 

Chrysene C12  H4 

Pyrene Cio  Hj        ; 

Ampaline. 

A01D8. 
Carbolic Cia  Hj  O.  H.  0. 

Rosalie. 
Brunolic. 

•  BASES.   ' 

Ammonia N.  H3 

Picoline,  or  odorine C12  H7  N. 

Aniline Ci2  H7  N. 

Leucoline,  or  quinoline Cis  H7  N. 

Parvoline CisHijN. 

Lutidine C9  Ho  N. 

and  others  not  yet  fully  investigated. 

Besides  the  foregoing  compounds,  derived  from  coal  tar, 
phenyle,  pyrrole,  animine,  olanine,  cyanole,  benzidam,  etc., 
and  others  have  been  described.  It  has  been  usual  to  sepa- 
rate the  coal  tar  of  gas  works  into  two  parts,  namely, 
naphtha  and  dead  oil.  The  tar  itself  always  contains  much 
finely  divided  carbon,  the  quantity  of  which  is  augmented 
by  a  high  heat.  Both  the  naphtha  and  dead  oil  consist  of 
a  number  of  hydro-carbons.    These  cannot  be  considered 


*  See  Gerhardt,  Chem.  Organ,  vol.  iv.,  p.  426. 


COAL  TAR. 


95 


as  certain  compounds,  as  they  are  liable  to  great  variations. 
The  nature  of  the  coal,  and  the  heat  applied,  as  before 
remarked,  have  much  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the  tar, 
cannel  coal  being  always  more  productive  of  spirits  and  oils 
than  common  bituminous  coal.  Besides  these  various  and 
variable  products,  several  of  them,  if  not  all,  have  many 
derivatives,  formed  by  their  combinations  with  other  sub- 
stances. For  instance,  by  the  action -of  chlorine  on  naph- 
thalin,  we  have,  according  to  the  nomenclature  of  Laurent, 
chlonaptose,  chlonapfes^e,  chlonapiwe,  etc.  By  the  action  of 
bromine,  bronaptose,  bronaptese,  bronap^we,  etc.  The  deri- 
vatives of  aniline  are  represented  as  chloranoline,  dichlo- 
ranoline,  trichloranoline,  bromanaline,  dibromanallne,  tri- 
bomanaline,  nitrodibromanaline,  etc.,  and  thus  pages  might 
be  filled  with  the  names  of  these  uncertain  combinations,  a 
systematic  arrangement  of  which  has  not  been  completed. 
These  discoveries  mark  the  progress  of  chemical  inquiry, 
although  they  have  not,  so  far,  added  much  to  manufactur- 
ing or  commercial  interests. 

When  coal  tar,  and  especially  that  obtained  from  cannel 
coal,  is  submitted  to  heat  in  a  still  connected  with  a  proper 
condensing  apparatus,  it  is  resolved  into  water,  benzole, 
naphtha,  and  various  heavy  hydro-carbonaceous  oils — char- 
coal remaining  in  the  still  if  the  distillation  has  been  carried 
on  to  dryness.  In  the  meantime  decomposition  has  taken 
place,  and  products  present  themselves  that  did  not  exist 
in  the  undistilled  material.  Of  these  products  a  part  is 
volatile,  and  another  and  the  largest  part  is  dense  and  not 
volatile.  The  former  may  be  advantageously  distilled  over 
by  the  aid  of  steam  at  the  temperature  ot  212°,  the  latter 
by  superheated  steam.  Manufactories  have  been  esta- 
blished where  the  coal  tar  is  distilled  down  to  a  thick 
pitch,  which  is  applied  for  roofing  buildings ;  the  dense  oils 


9d 


COAL  TAR  BENZOLE. 


are  employed  for  fuel  in  glass  works;  the  benzole  and 
naphtha,  after  being  rectified,  are  sold  for  dissolving  gutta 
percha  and  india  rubber,  for  varnish,  and  for  producing  the 
benzole  light.  The  heavy  oils  abound  in  naphthalin, 
which  has  not  yet  been  extensively  applied  to  any  useful 
purpose.  The  last  of  the  distillate  frequently  contains 
paraffin  oil  and  paraffin.  '  ' 

Among  the  valuable  derivatives  of  coal  tar  is  picric  acid, 
Welter's  bitter,  carbozotic  acid,  or  nitrophenesic  acid  of 
some  chemists.  This  acid  was  discovered  by  M.  Guinon, 
of  Lyons,  and  its  composition  is  stated  to  be  Cu  H3  N.  d 
O2.  This  substance  is  obtained  by  acting  upon  coal  tar,  or 
coal  tar  naphtha,  with  strong  nitric  acid.  It  produces  a 
beautiful  yellow  color,  which  is  capable  of  being  fixed  on 
silks  and  woollen  cloth.  It  is  used  in  France  and  England 
as  a  dye.  The  yellow  stain  communicated  to  the  skin  by 
nitric  acid,  and  which  cannot  be  removed  by  washing, 
arises  from  the  production  of  picric  acid.  Aniline  also  is 
converted  into  a  violet-colored  powder,  which  has  been  sold 
for  $250  per  lb.,  on  account  of  the  beautiful  red  and  purple 
dyes  it  communicates  to  silks.  Its  colors  are  permanent, 
and  exceed  in  delicacy  any  before  discovered. 

Benzole  {Ci2  ^r).  Bicarhuret  of  hydrogen  {Faxadsiy).  Ben- 
zine (Mitscherlich). — This  oil,  so  called,  although  it  is  rather 
a  spirit,  was  discovered  b}'  Faraday,  and  by  him  condensed 
from  oil  gas.  Mitscherlich  obtained  it  by  distilling  ben- 
zoic acid  with  hydrate  of  lime,  and  it  may  be  procured  by 
passing  the  vapor  of  benzoic  acid  through  a  red  hot  tube. 
It  exists  in  considerable  quantities  in  coal  tar  naphtha, 
from  which  it  may  be  separated  by  fractional  distillation. 
It  is  readily  purified,  by  first  washing  it  with  sulphuric 
acid,  then  with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  or  soda,  and 
final  distillation  over  lime.    Its  specific  gravity  is  0"850,  of 


COAL  TAR  BENZOLE. 


97 


itfi  vapor  2*742,  and  it  boils  at  186°.  Like  other  liquids 
distilled  from  coal  tar,  it  is  scarcely  a  distinct  and  separate 
product ;  but  forms  a  member  of  a  series  to  be  noticed 
hereafter.  Benzole  holds  a  medium  position  between  alli- 
ole,  so  called,  and  naphtha.  "With  chlorine  it  forms  chlo- 
robenzole  C12  Hj  Clg.  Similar  compounds  are  also  formed 
with  bromine,  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  itself  a 
starting  point  or  type  of  a  series  of  homologous  compounds, 
the  common  difference  at  each  step  being  C2  H2.  These 
compounds  all  admit  of  their  hydrogen  being  replaced  by 
one,  two,  or  three  equivalents  of  chlorine,  bromine,  nitric 
acid,  and  amide ;  finally  they  give  rise  to  bases,  of  which 
aniline  or  phenylamine  is  the  type.  * 

It  will  be  readily  perceived  how  benzole  differs  from 
eupion.  In  both,  the  multiple,  or  increasing  number  of 
the  hydrogen,  is  two ;  but  as  the  benzole  series  starts  with 
two  equivalents  of  carbon  to  one  of  hydrogen  and  eupion, 
with  one  equivalent  less  of  carbon  than  of  hydrogen,  the 
former  series  contains  the  most  carbon  throughout.  In 
making  the  benzole,  or  atmospheric  light,f  the  benzole 
requires  to  be  diluted  with  alcohol,  to  prevent  the  flame 
from  smoking.  Again,  eupion  alone  is  found  to  be  defi- 
cient in  carbon  for  that  purpose.  A  mixture  may  be  made 
of  the  two  liquids,  in  which  the  quantities  of  carbon  and 


*  Gregory,  Outlines  of  Organic  Chemistry.  London,  1852.  3d  ed.  p.  128, 
f  The  benzole,  or  atmospheric  light,  is  made  by  passing  a  current  of  air 
through  benzole,  or  other  volatile  liquid  hydrocarbon.  The  air,  by  taking 
up  a  quantity  of  the  liquid,  bums  freely,  and  is  distributed  in  the  manner  of 
coal  gas.  Numerous  machines  have  been  invented  for  forcing  a  current  of 
atr  through  the  fluid,  and  some  of  them  are  very  efficient.  But  below  a  cer- 
tain temperature  the  air  will  not  convey  vapor  sufficient  to  aftbrd  a  good 
light.  In  cold  weather,  also,  the  vapor  of  the  benzole  condenses  in  the 
pipes,  and  the  liquid  itself  requires  the  application  of  heat.  These  difficultfes 
have  so  far  been  insurmountable. 


98 


NAPHTHALIN. 


hydrogen  may  bo  so  adjusted  that  the  light  will  bo  bril- 
liant and  without  smoke. 

By  adding  benzole  gradually  to  strong  nitric  acid,  with 
the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat,  a  compound  is  formed  which  dis- 
solves in  the  acid,  and,  on  cooling,  collects  on  the  sur- 
face. On  diluting  the  mixture  with  water,  nitro-benzole 
is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  oil.  This  oil  has  a 
sweet  taste,  and  the  odor  of  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It 
is  used  in  perfumery,  and  in  the  bakery.  Benzole  is 
employed  for  many  useful  purposes.  It  dissolves  the  gums, 
resins,  and  all  fatty  substances.  It  removes  from  cloth 
and  silks  spots  of  tar,  grease,  turpentine,  etc.,  and  for  those 
purposes  it  has  been  imported  from  France  in  small  bottles, 
which  are  sold  at  high  prices.  Its  rapid  evaporation  ren- 
ders it  also  a  substitute  for  alcohol  and  turpentine  in  the 
preparation  of  paints  and  varnishes, 

Cumok  (Cig  If,o),  when  treated  like  benzole,  its  ho- 
mologues  yield  a  crystalline  solid,  which  is  fusible  and 
volatile. 

Toluole  (C,4  H^)  is  another  oil,  analogous  to  and  homo- 
logous with  benzole.  It  boils  at  2*26°,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  0"870-  When  treated  with  nitric  acid  it  yields 
two  compounds,  nitrotoluole  and  dinitrotoluole,  Deville 
obtained  a  series  of  compounds  from  toluole,  in  which  the 
hydrogen  was  replaced  by  chlorine.  • 

Naphthalin. — This  interesting  and  remarkable  hydro- 
carbon exists  in  almost  all  kinds  of  tar.  In  coal  tar  it  is 
very  abundant.  Jt  does  not  exist  ready-formed  in  coal, 
but  results  from  a  high  heat  in  its  distillation,  and  an  inter- 
change of  elements  during  the  decomposition  of  the  bitu- 
minous mineral.  Creasote,  or  carbolic  acid,  is  its  usual 
companion,  and  seems  to  add  to  its  quantity.  By  the 
repeated  distillations  of  coal  tar,  naphthalin  will  crystallize 


NAPHTHALIN. 


•0 


at  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  vessel,  and  may  be  separated 
from  the  oils  that  accompony  it  by  simple  draining  and 
pressure.  It  is  rendered  pure  by  a^tation  first  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  then  with  a  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash,  and  final  distillation  and  crystallization.  When 
pure,  naphthalin  is  colorless,  and  forms  beautiful  flat  and 
needle-shaped  crystals ;  it  evaporates  rapidly,  like  camphor, 
and  gives  out  a  peculiar  odor,  unpleasant  to  some  persons, 
but  agreeable  to  others.  Its  taste  is  hot  and  pungent,  and 
it  corrodes  the  skin.  A  soap  made  from  it  was  considered 
beneficial  to  the  complexion.  It  distils  with  water,  and, 
like  camphor,  sublimes  and  crystallizes  against  the  sides 
of  the  bottle  in  which  it  is  contained,  and  opposite  the 
light. 

Chlorine  and  bromine  combine  with  naphthalin,  and  lay 
the  foundation  of  a  great  number  of  compounds,  which 
are  formed  by  the  substitution  of  the  chlorine  and  bromine 
for  hydrogen.  The  labors  of  Laurent  have  been  success- 
fully applied  to  this  inquiry,  by  which  a  new  field  of 
research  has  been  opened,  and  the  doctrine  of  substitution 
more  clearly  established.  Sulphuric  acid  exerts  itself  upon 
naphthalin,  forming  hyposulphonaphOialic,  hyposidphonaph- 
Ihic  acids,  etc.  Thus,  also,  with  nitric  acid ;  but  the  num- 
ber of  these  combinations,  and  the  great  length  of  their 
names,  render  full  descriptions  of  them  unnecessary  in  a 
work  intended  to  be  practical.  Naphthalin  is  worthy  of  a 
trial  in  medicine,  and  may  hereafter  prove  jtself  to  be 
valuable  in  the  arts.  In  its  unpurified  state  it  adds  to  the 
offensive  odor  of  the  oils  distilled  from  coals,  and  increases 
the  cost  of  their  treatment. 

Paraffin  has  been  already  described  under  the  solid 
products  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  wood.  Its  yield 
from  the  coal  tar  of  cannel  coals  is  seldom  more  than  one- 


'    » 


100 


CARBOLIC  ACID. 


fourth  per  cent,  of  the  tar,  and  it  succeeds  the  naphthalin 
in  the  distillation.  i 

Anthracene,  or  paranaphthaUn  (C30  II12),  is  polymeric 
with  naphthalin,  and  is  obtained  from  the  heavy  distillates 
of  coal  tar.  It  melts  at  850°,  distils  at  898"»,  and  crystal- 
lizes in  thin,  foliated  plates.  Like  naphthalin,  it  is  acted 
upon  by  nitric  acid,  which  produces  a  series  of  compounds, 
oxygen  taking  the  place  of  hydrogen.  Thus  we  have 
hyponitrate  of  anceUiracenase,  bi-hyj  ..late  of  atithrace- 
nese,  etc. 

Chrysene  also  is  found  to  exist  in  the  last  divisions  of  the 
distillates  of  coal  tar.  It  is  a  crystalline  solid,  of  a  yellow 
color,  melting  at  456°,  and  not  soluble  in  many  liquids. 

Pyrene  (C,u  Hj)  occurs  with  chrysene.  It  is  acted  upon 
by  nitric  acid,  which  produces  a  number  of  derivatives. 
Chemistry  is  mainly  indebted  to  Laurent  for  the  discovery 
and  description  of  many  of  these  combinations. 

VOLATILE  BASES  IN  COAL  TAR. 


Carbolic  acid. — This  is  a  colorless  oil,  which,  in  its  general 
character,  resembles  creasote ;  and  by  some  it  is  believed 
to  be  only  a  modification  of  that  compound.  It  also  occurs 
in  the  heavy  distillates  of  coal  tar,  and  boils  at  880°.  Like 
creasote,  it  is  very  poisonous,  and  may  be  used  as  a  remedy 
for  toothache.  If  a  piece  of  pine- wood  be  dipped  in  car- 
bolic acid,,  and  then  in  nitric  acid,  it  will  become  blue, 
which  finally  changes  into  brown.  This  acid  has  an  offen- 
sive odor,  which  it  imparts  to  coal  oils,  and  thereby  in- 
creases the  cost  of  their  purification. 

Picoline  (C,2  H7)  is  a  volatile,  oily  base,  discovered  in  coal 
tar  by  Dr.  Anderson.  It  boils  at  272",  does  not  discolor 
pine-wood,  and  is  probably  the  odorine  of  Unverdorben. 


ANILINE  PROM  COAL  TAR. 


101 


■•iti 


Aniline  has  been  termed  crystalline,  cyanol,  lenzidam, 
pheni/hmine,  phenamine,  phcnamide,  etc.  This  base  occurs 
among  the  products  distilled  from  coals,  and  those  pro- 
duced by  the  destructive  distillation  of  animal  matter.  It 
is  also  described  as  having  been  obtained  from  indigo. 
The  author  found  aniline  an  abundant  product  in  the  tar 
of  stearine  manufactories,  and  the  oils  distilled  from  shales, 
which  contain  the  remains  of  fishes  and  Crustacea.  Ani- 
line is  a  highly  refractive,  colorless  oil,  of  specific  gravity 
1'020.  When  pure,  it  has  a  hot,  pungent  taste,  and  plea- 
sant smell.  It  does  not  act  on  turmeric,  but  turns  purple 
to  green.  With  bleaching  powder,  it  produces  a  purple 
color.  This  color  is  frequently  seen  in  the  coal  oils  of  the 
market. 

Lencoline,  or  qninoline, — This  base  is  found  to  exist 
among  the  last  and  least  volatile  products  of  coal  tar. 
It  boils  at  460°,  has  a  disagreeable  smell,  and  neutralizes 
acids. 

Lutidine  is  another  of  these  bases,  the  nature  of  which 
has  been  but  imperfectly  made  out. 


4:A 


COAL  TAR  NAPHTHA,   BENZOLE  (OR   BENZINE),   NITRO- 
BENZOLE,  ANILINE,   AND  ANILINE  DYES. 

Coal  tar  from  gas  works  distilled  over  fire  with  o"o-fifth 
its  weight  of  water  produces  naphtha,  which  is  that  portion 
of  the  distillate  coming  over  with  the  water.  Distilled  by 
steam  passed  through  the  charge,  coal  tar  yields  a  larger 
quantity  of  naphtha,  but  of  poor  quality  for  aniline  pur- 
poses. 

The  crude  naphtha  is  thoroughly  agitated  with  three  per 
cent.,  or  three  gallons  to  the  hundred,  of  sulphuric  acid  at 
66°,  and  permitted  to  settle  for  three  hours.    The  naphtha 


M 


102 


RECTIFIED  NAPHTHA. 


is  then  drawn  off  and  again  washed  with  five  per  cent,  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  auttled  for  five  hours.  The  naphtha  is 
then  drawn  off  and  agitated  with  water  in  large  quantity, 
to  remove  as  much  of  the  acid  as  posHiblo.  The  water  is 
drawn  off.  The  naphtha  is  then  agitated  with  ten  per  cent, 
of  strong  solution  of  soda-osh,  together  with  three  percent, 
of  milk  of  lime.  Draw  off  the  naphtha  as  before.  Pump 
into  an  iron  still  and  pass  steam  through  the  charge,  col- 
lecting all  the  naphtha  that  comes  over  with  the  water. 
The  naphtha  should  then  be  run  into  a  tank  under  ground, 
and  left  for  twelve  hours  closely  excluded  from  the  light, 
until  the  water,  mechanically  combined  with  the  naphtha, 
has  had  time  to  separate,  which  usually  takes  twelve  hours. 
The  article  is  now  rectified  naphtha,  and  should  stand  the 
sunlight  without  change. 

From  this  rectified  naphtha  benzole  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation, in  a  still  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  passing 
over  of  all  fluids  which  require  a  heat  greater  than  212** 
Fah.  to  volatilize  them.  This  can  usually  be  managed  by 
surrounding  the  still  head  with  water.  As  this  boils  at 
212°,  it  will  keep  the  head  at  about  that  temperature  and 
serve  to  show  the  degree  of  heat  at  that  point. 

Pump  the  rectified  naphtha  into  the  above  still  and  dis- 
til over  fire.    The  vapors  and  oils  go  over  as  follows : 


Ist.  Alliole 

2d.   Benzole  ^  These  distU  over  at  212". 

3(1.   To.uulo  ) 

4th.  Cumole  »  Theae  will  not  pass  over  unless  the 

otii.  Cymolo  J      temperature  is  above  212". 


^ 


The  alliole  and  toluole  may  be  separated,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  the  benzole  by  another  distillation,  in  which 
the  first  and  last  portions  of  the  distillate  are  rejected  and 


NITROBKNZOLE. 


108 


the  middlo  portion  taken.  This  midiUo  portion  is  ordinary 
commerciul  coal  tar  benzole.  11"  required  Htill  purer,  it 
must  be  treated  with  one  half  pound  sulphuric  acid  to  each 
gallon  of  the  benzole,  and  then  be,  after  settling,  well 
washid  with  water.  Then  treat  it  with  a  solution  of  one 
ounce  nitruto  of  sodu  to  the  gallon,  and  wash  clean  with 
water. 

Pure  benzole  boils  at  170°  Fah.,  and  is  entirely  vola- 
tilized at  212°  Fah. 

NITRODENZOLE. 

The  formation  of  this  article  depending  upon  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  upon  benzole,  various  modes  have  been  em- 
ployed to  obtain  it. 

It  can  be  prepared  by  adding  slowly  and  carefully  fum- 
ing nitric  acid  to  benzole,  assisting  the  reaction  by  a  mode- 
rate heat.  This  operation  can  be  made  in  a  glass  vessel. 
When  the  nitric  acid  will  dissolve  no  more  benzole, 
which  is  known  by  the  ceasing  of  effervescence,  the  mix- 
ture is  cooled  by  being  placed  in  a  water  bath,  when  the 
nitrobenzole  separates  as  an  oily  liquid.  This  is  washed 
with  water,  and  afterwards  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  can  be  purified  by  distillation.  It  is  a  yellowish 
fluid,  getting  deeper  color  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  has 
the  odor  of  bitter  almonds.  Its  specific  gravity  is  I'OSO. 
It  boils  at  213*,  and  crystallizes  in  needles  at  a  low  tem- 
perature. It  is  also  prepared  by  permitting  a  small  stream 
of  the  benzole  and  nitric  acid  to  pass  through  a  long  -worm 
well  cooled,  the  nitrobenzole  being  collected  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  worm. 


ANILINE. 

One  of  the  best  and  cheapest  modes  of  obtaining  aniline  § 

8 


104 


ANILINE. 


from  nitrobenzole  is  that  of  M.  Bochamp.  A  mixture  of 
iron  filings  two  parts  and  acetic  acid  one  part,  with  about 
an  equal  volume  of  nitrobenzole,  is  distilled,  tbe  reaction 
being  assisted  by  a  gentle  beat  whenever  the  effervescence 
ceases.  Aniline  and  water  are  found  in  the  receiver,  tbe 
aniline  being  separated  from  the  water  by  the  addition  of 
a  very  little  ether,  which,  dissolving  in  the  aniline,  causes 
it  to  rise  to  the  surface,  when  it  is  easily  decanted. 

A  very  spacious  glass  or  earthen  retort  must  be  employed 
as  the  mass  swells  up  violently,  and  it  must  on  the  small 
scale  be  connected  with  the  receiver  by  a  Liebig's  conden- 
ser, and  on  the  large  by  an  ordinary  worm  and  cooling  tub, 
which  must  be  well  supplied  with  water. 

Aniline  is  also  prepared  from  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
nitrobenzole,  which,  after  saturation  with  ammonia,  is 
heated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  until  a  precipitate  of 
sulphur  takes  place.  The  liquor  is  then  removed  and 
repeatedly  saturated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  until  no 
more  sulphur  separates,  assisting  the  operation  by  occa- 
sionally heating  and  distilling  the  liquor;  an  excess  of 
acid  is  then  added,  and  the  liquid  filtered.  The  alcohol 
and  unsettled  nitrobenzole  are  removed  by  boiling,  and  the 
residuum  is  distilled  with  caustic  potassa  in  excess.  The 
aniline  in  the  receiver  may  be  purified  by  forming  it  into 
oxalate  of  aniline,  crystallizing  the  salt  from  alcohol,  and 
distillation  as  before  with  caustic  potassa. 

Pure  aniline  is  a  colorless  liquid,  strongly  aromatic,  and 
burning  to  the  taste.  It  is  very  soluble  in  alcohol  or  ether, 
and  slightly  so  in  water.  It  becomes  yellow  on  exposure 
to  the  air,  and  distils  at  200°.     It  cannot  be  frozen. 

Aniline  is  prepared  also  from  the  heavier  oils  of  coal  tar 
by  agitating  them  for  some  time  with  hydrochloric  acid  in 
excess  in  a  glass  globe  on  a  small  scale,  or  on  the  large 


ANILINE  DYES. 


105 


scale  in  a  suitable  vessel  of  lead  or  enamelled  iron.  The 
clear  portion  of  the  liquid  containing  the  hydrochlorates  of 
the  bases  present  is  evaporated  over  an  open  fire  until  acid 
fumes  begin  to  rise,  when  it  is  decanted  and  filtered.  The 
clear  filtrate  is  then  mixed  with  milk  of  lime  or  with  potr 
ash  in  excess,  by  which  the  bases,  chiefly  "aniline "'and 
"chinoline,"  are  set  free  under  the  form  of  a  brownish  oil. 
The  whple  mixture  is  then  distilled,  the  portion  passing 
over  at  360°  Fah.,  being  collected  separately.  This  is 
crude  aniline,  and  is  purified  by  re- distillation  and  re-col- 
lection £^t  the  same  temperature,  and  by  fresh  treatment 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  careful  distillation  with  ei^cf  ss 
of  potash  and  milk  of  ^lime  as  before. 

ANILINE  DYES. 


The  details  of  the  various  processes  by  which  aniline  is 
made  to  perform  a  useful  part  in  dyeing  would  be  too 
voluminous  for  this  work.  The  following  extracts  from 
the  patents  of  Georges  de  Lai  re  and  Charles  Girard  will 
serve  to"  give  an  idea  of  the  manipulation  for  aniline  red. 
This  patent  bears  date  November  2  2d,  1860 : 

"  By  our  new  process  we  put  into  a  distilling  apparatus 
twelve  parts  arsenic  acid  and  twelve  parts  water,  and  the 
arsenic  acid  having  become  completely  hydrated,  we  add 
ten  parts  kyanol  (the  'aniline'  of  French  chemists).  The 
whole  is  then  agitated  or  shaken,  so  as  to  produce  a  tho- 
rough mixture,  forming  a  homogeneous,  clammy,  or  nearly 
solid  mass.  This  mass  is  heated  at  a  low  fire,  so  as  to  gra- 
dually raise  its  temperature,  when  the  liquefaction  takes 
place.  By  this  modus*  operandi  water,  and  only  a  small 
quantity  of  kyanol,  are  evaporated,  if  the  operation  is  con- 
ducted with  proper  care.     At  a  temperature  of  248°  Fah., 


106 


ANILINE  DYES. 


a  great  quantity  of  the  kyanol  or  aniline  is  already  con- 
verted into  coloring  matter,  and  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  temperature  at  that  point  for  some  time,  after 
which  it  is  further  raised  ;  but  in  no  instance  above  320* 
Fah.  We  thus  obtain  a  perfectly  homogeneous  and  fluid 
mass  above  212"  Fah.  This  operation  lasts  from  four  to 
five  hours.  When  cooled,  the  mass  solidifies  and  becomes 
a  hard,  brittle  matter,  of  a  coppery  hue,  similar  to  Floren- 
tine bronze.  This  matter  is  highly  soluble  in  water  and 
other  solvents,  such  as  alcohol,  and  imparts  to  them  a  fine 
pure  red  tint,  having  no  admixture  of  violet,  the  .intensity 
of  this  coloring  matter  being  so  great  that  after  having 
been  boiled  and  concentrated  it  appears  altogether 
black. 

"  This  coloring  matter  may,  without  inconvenience,  be 
directly  applied  to  dyeing  or  otherwise  coloring  fabrics 
and  other  substances,  the  substance  thus  colored  not  re- 
taining the  slightest  trace  of  arsenic.  The  arsenic  may  also 
be  eliminated  in  an  easy  way  by  either  of  the  following 
processes : — First  process.  The  mass  is  pulverized  and 
digested  with  either  chlorhydric  (hydro-chloric)  or  sulphu- 
ric acid,  diluted  with  water.  The  clear  solution  thus  ob- 
tained is  then  saturated  with  a  slight  excess  of  soda  or 
carbonate  of  soda ;  thus  the  coloring  matter  precipitates, 
while  the  arsenic  is  dissolved  in  the  alkali.  The  coloring 
matter  is  next  washed  once  or  twice  in  cold  water,  when 
it  may  be  filtered  or  decanted. 

"  Second  process.  The  coloring  matter,  after  having 
been  dissolved  in  water,  is  digested  with  a  quantity  of  lime 
corresponding  with  the  portion  of  afsenical  compounds 
contained  in  it,  the  lime  being  slightly  in  excess.  The 
coloring  matter  is  then  precipitated,  as  well  as  the  arsenical 
compounds,  which  combine  into  insoluble  calcareous  salts. 


ANILINE  DYES. 


107 


The  precipitates  both,  and  the  solutions,  are  then  (without 
being  separated)  acted  upon  by  either  of  the  carbonic,  tar- 
taric, or  acetic  acids,  which  dissolve  the  coloring  matter, 
the  whole  of  the  arsenic  remaining  insoluble." 

Messrs.  de  Laire  and  Girard  also  obtain  a  violet  color- 
ing matter,  and  also  a  combination  of  blue  and  other  color- 
ing matter,  by  merely  changing  the  proportion  of  the  arse- 
nic used.  By  acting  upon  ten  parts  of  aniline,  or  any  salt 
containing  ten  parts  of  aniline,  with  eighteen,  twenty,  and 
twenty-four  parts  of  arsenic  acid,  they  obtain  a  more  or 
less  violet,  tending  towards  the  pure  blue. 

Hofmann  procured  aniline  red  by  the  action  of  bichlo- 
ride of  carbon  on  aniline.  M.  Verguin  prepared  the  color 
by  tetra-chloride  of  tin.  MM.  Renard  Brothers  in  France, 
and  Messrs.  Simpson,  Maule,  and  Nicholson  in  England, 
manufacture  the  various  tints  which,  under  the  name  of 
Fuchsine,  Magenta,  Solferino,  Mauve,  and  many  others, 
are  now  so  well  known  to  the  world. 

Aniline  green  was  produced  by  the  action  of  aldehyde 
or  wood  spirit,  upon  the  aniline  red  by  M.  Eusebe.  It 
may  be  prepared  as  follows : — 150  grammes  of  sulphate  of 
rozaniline  are  dissolved  in  450  grammes  of  cold,  diluted 
sulphuric  acid  (three  parts  of  acid  to  one  of  water).  When 
the  solution  is  complete,  225  grammes  of  aldehyde  are 
added,  the  mixture  being  stirred.  The  whole  is  now  heated 
in  a  water  bath.  From  time  to  time  a  drop  of  the  mixture 
is  taken  up  with  a  stirring-rod,  and  dropped  into  slightly 
acidulated  water,  and  as  soon  as  a  deep  green  solution  is 
obtained  the  reaction  is  stopped.  The  mixture  is  now 
poured  into  thirty  litres  of  boiling  water,  and  to  this  solu- 
tion are  gradually  added  450  grammes  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  water. 
The  whole  is  now  boiled  for  some  minutes.     All  the  green 


^^s^ 


^wflffw'^ 


T^PPP!W™'j^'w*inP'r^!W^P''^p?^J^^^f§|pr 


108 


ANILINE  DYES. 


remains  in  the  solution,  which  may  be  used  to  dye 
silk* 

Aniline  yellow  is  produced  by  the  action  of  hydrated 
antimonic  or  a  stannic  acid  upon  aniline. 

Aniline  has  been  studied  by  Runge,  Zinin,  Futzsche,  Hof- 
mann,  Muspratt,  Laurent,  Gerhardt,  and  others.  Before  it 
had  become  an  article  of  general  use  and  its  manufacture 
was  more  of  a  monopoly  than  at  present,  the  following  table 
by  MM.  Laurent  and  Casthelaz  was  an  evidence  of  what 
chemistry  had  done  with  coal.f 


Fr. 

Cent. 

■ 

Per  Kilogramme 

1.  Coal  . 

0 

04 

—  2  lbs.  3ioz. 

2.  Tar    . 

4 

10 

ti 

3.  Heavy  oil  . 

0 

20 

tt 

4.  Light  oil     . 

1 

25 

CI 

5.  Senzine 

2 

50 

« 

6.  Rough  nitro-benzine  . 

7 

11 

<i 

7.  Rectified  nitro-benzine 

12 

ti 

a 

8.  Ordinary  aniline 

45 

« 

It 

9.  Violet  &  carmine  aniline  75 

II 

i( 

10.  Pure  aniline  violet  in 

Powder 

3  to  4000 

tt 

Thus,  with  coal  carried  to  its  tenth  power,  the  price  of 
gold  was  re.nched. 

The  present  price  of  aniline  in  powder  varies  from  $7.50 
to  $8.00,  and  $10.00  per  pound.  England,  France,  and 
Germany  supply  the  American  market  for  the  greater 
part.  A  commercial  list  of  aniline  dyes  from  the  house  of 
Messrs.  Toepke  &  LeidloflF,  Magdeburg,  Germany,  is  ap- 
pended : 


•  Chemical  Nevrn,  London,  1860.     Vol.  ii.,  p.  77. 
f  Chemical  New»,  vol.  ix.,  p.  217.     1864 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE   DISTILLATION  OP  COALS. 


109 


Rubin  I.  [Reddish  Red.]  I  Pure  Crystals,  dissolving  without 

<     alcohol  in  hot  water,  by  boil- 
Rubin  II.  [Bluish  Rjd.]   (     ing  five  minuti'S. 

Lilac.    [Shade  between  Rubin  and  Violet  I.] 

New  Viokt  I.    [Purple  of  a  very  Reddish  shade.] 

New  Violet  II.    [Purple  of  a  somewhat  deeper  shade  of 

Blue.] 

New  Violet  III.    [Purple  of  a  still  d3eper  shade  of  Blue.] 

Parmi\     [Purple  of  a  very  deep  shade  of  Blue.] 

Aniline  Blue  I.    [Reddish  Blue.] 

Aniline  Blue  IT.    [Greenish  or  Night  Blue.] 

Orange  of  Aniline. 

Green  of  Anilina,  in  Crystals. 

Red-Brown  of  Aniline. 

Salt  of  Aniline.    For  Cotton  Goods. 

Fuchsine.     Reddish  a^id  Bluish  Red. 


PRODUCTS  OP  THE  DISTILLATION  OF  COALS  AT  A  HEAT  OP 
700^  TO  800°   FAH. 

The  oil  J  products  distilled  from  coals  at  a  high  heat,  or 
those  produced  in  coal  gas  manufactories,  have  been  called 
tars.  However  incorrect  this  appellation  may  seem  to  the 
chemist,  it  will  serve  to  distinguish  those  coal  tars  from 
the  products  distilled  from  bituminous  substances  at  heats 
just  sufficient  to  expel  all  the  volatile  matter  they  are 
capable  of  affording.  These  are  oils.  The  same  descrip- 
tion of  coals,  distilled  at  the  same  temperature,  and  by  the 
same  mode,  will  always  yield  the  same  results.  The  prin- 
cipal products  of  the  decomposition  of  coals  at  a  gas- 
producing  heat,  have  been  already  noticed ;  but  in  order 
to  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  commercial  oils,  the  heat 
applied  to  the  distilling  vessel  should  not  exceed  800°  Fah., 
while  for  the  production  of  illuminating  gas  a  temperature 
of  1000°  to  1200°  will  be  required.  Nevertheless,  it  should 
ever  be  remembered,  that  to  make  the  greatest  quantity 


■  \ 


110        PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION  OP  COALS. 


and  the  pur^t  oils,  different  coals  require  different  heats, 
some  of  them  yielding  up  their  oily  vapors  mora  readily 
than  others.  Therefore,  if  the  same  coals  which  produce 
the  before-mentioned  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
contained  in  coal  tar,  be  dry-distilled  at  a  heat  not  exceed- 
ing 750°  or  800°,  the  products  will  be  different  in  quality 
and  quantity.  Instead  of  benzole,  there  will  be  eupion  ; 
naphthalin  will  not  be  formed,  and  if  formed,  the  quan- 
tity will  be  small ;  the  quantity  of  paraffin  will  be  greatly 
increased,  and  the  amount  of  creasote  or  carbolic  acid 
reduced  ;  so  that  the  purification  is  less  expensive.  There 
will  be,  also,  a  great  change  in  the  quality  of  the  oils. 
Instead  of  coal  tar  naphtha,  which  cannot  be  burnt  in  com- 
mon lamps  without  smoke,  on  account  of  its  being  sur- 
charged with  carbon,  there  will  be  a  large  amount  of  oils, 
with  fewer  equivalents  of  carbon,  and  admirably  adapted 
for  illumination,  and  also  denser  oils  for  lubrication.  The 
following  are  the  results  of  one  ton  Newcastle  cannel  coal, 
distilled  for  gas  and  for  oils : 


DISTILLED   FOR  OAS. 


DISTILLED   FOR  OILS. 


FroducU). 

Coal  gas,      .        .      7'450  cub.  ft.  Gas,  . 

Coal  tar,       .        .  18i  gals.  Crude  oil, 

Coke,  .        .        .      1,200  lbs.  Coke,  . 


Products. 


1-400  cub.  ft. 

C8  gala. 
1,280  lbs. 


Products  of  thA  Cool  Tar. 


Products  of  the  Crude  Oil. 


Benzole,       ...       3  pints.     Eupion,       .        .        .2  gals. 
Coal  tar  naphtha,         .       3  gals.      Lamp  oil,    .        .        .22'5    " 
Heavy  oil,  naphthalin,  etc,  9    "         Heavy  oil  and  paralBn,  24      " 


Total, 


12f  gals. 


Total, 


48-5  gals. 


The  product  set  down  above  as  lamp  oil  consists  of  seve- 
ral oils  combined,  which  will  be  noted  hereafter. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION  OP  BITUMEN.      Ill 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATES  OF  ASPHALTUM,    BITUMEN, 

PETROLEUM,    ETC. 

The  asphaltum  of  New  Brunswick,  now  called  Albert 
coal,  is  one  of  the  richest  materials  ever  discovered  for  the 
manufacture  of  oils.  Seventy  per  cent,  of  the  first  distil- 
late, after  purification,  may  be  brought  up  to  a  specific 
gravity  of  0820,  and  burned  in  the  ordinary  coal-oil 
lamp.  The  material  contains  nitrogen,  and  therefore 
yields  ammonia.  It  melts  in  the  retort,  and  the  vola- 
tile parts  escape  at  a  lower  heat  than  those  of  coal. 
This  may  account  in  some  degree  for  its  greater  yield  of 
oils,  and  their  freedom  from  impurities.  From  it  naph- 
thalin  is  seldom  produced  ;  and  although  paraffin  is  found 
among  its  products,  crerisote  and  other  compounds  of  its 
class  exist  but  in  small  quantities,  while' the  illuminating 
oils  are  abundant.  The  oils  themselves  belong  to  a  series 
which  contains  less  carbon  than  ordinary  coal  oils.  They 
burn  freely,  and  give  a  clear,  white  light.  The  asphalte, 
or  bitumen,  of  the  Dead  Sea,  affords  much  oil,  mixed  with 
the  impurities  before  noticed.  There  is  present,  also,  a 
peculiar  volatile  oil,  which  gives  even  to  its  purest  pro- 
ducts an  unpleasant  smell.  This  might  properly  be  called 
odorine,  although  it  does  not  agree  with  the  odorine  of  Un- 
verdorben. 

The  bitumen  of  the  Pitch  Lake  of  Trinidad  contains  sul- 
phur, and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  issues  from  the  pit  where 
the  semi-liquid  mineral  is  discharged  from  the  earth.  By 
distillation  it  also  yields  a  whole  series  of  hydro-carbon 
oils,  some  of  which  have  been  called  naphtha,  and  repre- 
sented as  Co  Ilg ;  others  Q^  Ilig.  It  is  quite  evident  that 
bitumens  and  their  distillates  differ  materially  in  their  com- 
position, and  therefore  their  value  for  the  manufacture  of 
illuminating  oils,  or  for  gas,  can  only  be  ascertained  by 


132 


PRODUCTS  OF  BITUMEN. 


experiment.  This  bitumen  yields  70  gallons  of  crude  oil 
per  ton  of  2240  lbs.  The  impurities  in  its  first  distillate 
are  numerous.  Among  its  soluble  parts  pyroxilic  spirit 
and  other  products  of  the  distillation  of  wood  have  been 
detected,  giving  evidence  of  the  vegetable  origin  of  the 
pitch.  All  the  oils  distilled  from  this  substtince  have  a 
most  forbidding  smell,  which  arises  from  a  volatile  oil. 
This  oil  bids  defiance  to  acids  and  alkalies,  indeed  the  lat- 
ter render  it  more  persistent. 

The  bitumens  of  Cuba  yield  from  100  to  140  gallons 
per  ton  of  the  crude  oil.  These,  when  purified,  are  admi- 
rably adapted  to  lamps.  A  British  company  shipped 
the  bitumens  (chapapote  of  the  Spaniards)  to  England  for 
the  making  of  lamp  and  lubricating  oils ;  but  the  odor 
followed  them,  and  presented  an  obstacle  of  significance. 
Few  of  the  bitumens  of  Central  and  South  America  have 
been  tested  in  reference  to  their  composition,  or  value  for 
hydro-carbon  oils.  Those  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
are  beginning  to  draw  the  attention  of  manufacturers  in 
reference  to  their  value  in  competition  with  cannel  coals 
and  petroleum. 

The  bitumen  of  Canada  West  contains  decayed  vege- 
tables,  and  is  no  doubt  the  result  of  petroleum  that  has 
long  been  exposed  to  the  air ;  2000  lbs.  yielded  109  gallons 
of  crude  oils.  From  this  crude  product  64  gallons  of  lamp 
oils  were  distilled,  and  also  18  gallons  of  heavy  oils  suita- 
ble for  lubricating  machinery.  It  differs  very  essentially 
from  the  bitumens  of  the  West  India  Islands,  and  the  oils 
require  careful  purification.  The  great  diversity  in  the 
characters  of  these  substances  opens  an  extensive  range  for 
chemical  research. 

Bituminous  sands  and  clays  are  found  at  many  sites  in 
Central  and  South  America.    These,  when  submitted  to 


PRODUCTS  OF  BITUMINOUS  SANDS  AND  CLAYS.     113 


dry  distillation,  afford  various  quantities  of  gases  and  oils, 
■which  possess  the  ordinary  characters  of  bitumen  oils. 
Among  tlioso  substances  may  be  reckoned  the  "prairie 
gas  stone  "  of  Illinois,  of  which  glowing  descriptions  have 
appeared  in  newspapers.  This  is  a  grey  limestone,  with 
pores  and  cells  partially  filled  with  bitumen.  By  distilla- 
tion therefore  the  rock  jfields  hydro-carbon  oils,  carburetted 
and  bicarburetted  hydrogen  gases.  One  sample  of  the  rock 
gave  at  the  rate  of  18  gallons  of  crude  oils,  per  ton.  The 
bituminous  brown  coal  of  Ouachita,  Arkansas,  has  already 
been  noticed. 

All  these  oils,  when  purified,  and  when  they  are  of  a 
specific  gravity  less  than  0'850,  are  extremely  fluorescent. 
"When  freed  from  acids  they  appear  yellow  by  transmitted 
light,  and  by  reflected  light  blue.  The  beautiful  hues  of 
the  rainbow  are  sometimes  brougiit  out  by  frequent  distil 
lations  and  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  alkalies, 
by  which  the  illuminating  oils  are  frequently  injured.  It 
is  a  peculiar  feature  of  impure  coal  oils  to  change  color  by 
exposure  to  the  air  and  light.  Oils  that  come  from  the 
worm  of  the  still  perfectly  colorless  will  turn  yellow,  then 
red,  and  in  a  few  days  a  dark  brown.  Sometimes  this 
change  of  color  begins  at  the  surface  of  the  oil,  and  pro 
ceeds  downwards  until  the  whole  mass  is  discolored.  This 
arises  from  the  oxidation  of  the  impurities  by  the  atmo 
sphere.  Changes  of  color  also  arise  from  the  predominance 
of  an  acid  or  an  alkali  in  the  oil,  which  should  be  perfectly 
neutral.  The  purest  oils,  when  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  light,  will  vary  in  color,  according  as  the  day  is  bright 
or  cloudy.  They  possess  photographic  properties  not  well 
understood. 

Some  of  the  petroleums,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  evapo- 
rate rapidly  down  to  a  thick  bitumen,  others  resist  evapo- 


.tr- 


114 


PRODUCTS  OP  PETROLEUM. 


ration,  and  "skin  over  "  like  linseed  oil.  Their  oils  differ 
from  those  distilled  from  coals.  They  require  a  greater 
heat  in  their  distillation,  and  their  vapors  are  extremely 
inflammable.  These  petroleum  oils  usually  commence  to 
boil  at  160°  Fab.,  but  sometimes  at  a  still  lower  degree  of 
beat.  The  lighter  or  spirituous  [)arLs  of  the  charge  tben 
begin  to  distil  off,  and  as  the  heat  is  increased  the  heavier 
portions  come  over  in  succession  until  the  thermometer 
reaches  665°,  when  paraffin,  if  any  be  present,  will  begin 
to  appear.  It  is  therefore  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  any 
one  specified  oil,  of  which  the  aggregate  is  compounded. 
A  thermometer  fixed  in  the  still  indicates  the  boiling  or 
distilling  point  of  the  mass  at  the  time  of  observation,  and 
nothing  more.  Each  of  the  oils  composing  the  aggregate 
collection  has  a  different  number  of  the  equivalents  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  with  which  the  several  boiling  points 
doubtless  agree ;  but  the  exact  rate  at  which  the  boiling 
point  does  increase,  according  to  the  proportions  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  present  in  the  several  oils,  has  not  been  accu- 
rately discovered. 

Laurent  has  given  the  composition  of  some  of  the  oils 
distilled  from  bituminous  schists  as  follows : — 


Boiling  Points.  Carbon.  Hydrogen. 

144° 8G  H3 

171° .85  141 

210° 862  13  0 

304" 85-60  145 

St.  Evrre  gives  the  following : — 

Boiling  Points.  Carbon.  ITydrogon. 

520-  and  536" 36  34 

485°  "  500° 28  26 

414°  "  428° 24  22 

268°  "  275° 18  16 


PR0DUC3TS  OP  CANDLE  TAR. 


115 


Candle  Tnr. — When  the  tar  resulting  from  the  manufac- 
ture of  Htoarino  is  submitted  to  distillation,  it  sends  over  a 
series  of  oils,  the  chief  number  of  which  are  good  illumina- 
tora.  Paraffin  also  appears  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ope- 
ration. Frequently  there  is  the  production  of  much  acro- 
leine,  the  vapor  of  which  produces  a  burning  sensation  in 
the  throat  and  nostrils,  and  is  very  unhealthy.  These  oils  are 
easily  purified  by  alternate  washings  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  solutions  of  the  caustic  alkalies,  with  final  distillation. 
They  are  of  a  light  orange  color.  The  lighter  oils  are 
colorless,  and  by  rectification  they  may  be  obtained  of  a 
specific  gravity  not  exceeding  0'680.  The  denser  oils  are 
superior  for  lamps. 

Caoulchene,  or  oil  of  caoutchouc,  is  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  India  rubber,  at  a  moderate  heat.  A  series 
of  liglit  oils,  easy  of  purification,  is  the  result.  The  vapors 
are  very  heavy,  and  dissolve  the  jesins,  shellac,  and  amber. 
These  oils  have  been  represented  as  being  caoutchene^  which 
boils  at  72*^,  Faradayine  at  96°,  eupione  at  124°,  and 
caoutchme  at  830°. 

Outta  Percha  yields  oils  nearly  allied  to  the  above. 


U6 


COMPOSITION  OP  DISTILLED  OILS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CompoHltlon  of  distilled  oiln. — Ilomolojfoun  compounds — Tnblo  of  the 
lunie. — Compounds  of  Carbon  iintl  Ily(ln)^cn.— Gaseous  coiiipuunds.— 
Iloinologuus  obtaiuoJ  from  coal  tar,  coal,  bitumoti,  caoulchuuc,  etc. 

OXYGEN  OILS. 

Beeoue  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  methods 
employed  for  the  purification  of  the  before-mentioned  oijs, 
it  is  considered  necessary  to  give  some  account  of  their 
component  parts  and  their  derivatives.  Oxygen  enters  into 
the  com  {Position  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  oils,  unless 
those  oils  have  been  submitted  to  distillation,  which,  in 
gert^ral,  removes  their  oxygen  and  changes  their  charac- 
terEi,  '/'ho  oils  distilled  from  plants  with  water  are  known 
as  essences,  or  essential  oils.  They  seldom  contain  oxygon, 
and  are  therefore  called  hydro-carbon  oils.  The  volatile 
vegetable  oils  contain  oxygen  perhaps  without  an  exception. 
The  oils  distilled  from  the  bituminous  and  oleaginous 
substances  described  in  the  preceding  chapters  contain  no 
oxygen  when  they  arc  pur.  they  are  composed  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  and  are  therefore  hydro-carbon  oils.  The 
greater  the  quantity  of  carbon,  in  proportion  to  the  hydro- 
gen any  one  of  them  contains,  the  greater  is  its  specific 
gravity,  the  higher  it«^  boiling  point,  density  of  vapor,  and 
tendency  to  smoke  when  employed  forihe  purpose  of  illu- 
mination. An  excess  of  carbon,  however,  does  no  harm 
to  any  oil  designed  for  lubricatioi;  bv.t  rather  gives  it  con- 
sistency and  durability.  Regarding-  '.'itnp  oils,  the  greater 
the  amount  of  carbon  they  coniui  ■.  i/..  grtri-T  will  l>e  their 


ORaANIC  AND  J10M0L0G0U8  COMPOUNDS. 


117 


illuminating  powers,  and  thcroforo  thnt  is  the  bc«f  lamp, 
whicii,  when  liglitud,  will  docompoao  the  greatest  amount 
of  eai  bon  in  the  flame.  It  \h  to  the  equivalents  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  contained  in  oiU  tho  attention  turns  as  to 
a  starting-point  in  this  inquiry. 


OUOANIO    ..Nl     llO.MOI.LiviOUS  COMPOUNDS. 

It  is  well  n.iderblvK. '  hat  certain  series  of  organic  com- 
pounds ocor,  1,  '■  which  llie  quantities  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxypvn,  and  niiiogen  increase  or  decrease,  rise  or  fall,  in 
exact  and  certain  quantities,  or  number' of  equivalents. 
Take,  for  example,  twenty  volatile  acids,  as  given  by  Dr. 
Gregory,  and  witlj  a  general  formula  of  Cj  llj  O4  ,*  as 
follows: — 


=  C,  ir,  O4 
=  C4  n«  O4 
=  Ca  Ha  0« 

=  Cs  ITh  O4 
=  Cio  Hill  0| 
=  Cu  III:  O4 
=  Ou  Hu  Oi 

=  C16  H16  Oi 
=  CiH  Hitt  O4 
=  C.I)  Ilai  Oi 
=  C....  Bii  O4 

=  C,4  II.4  O4 

=  C;o  Hjti  Oi 
=  C,,,  II a<  O4 
=  C..«,  H.  0  O4 
=  C;(2  lis:  04 

=»  C34  H34  04 

=  C,S8  H;j(i  Oj 


1  Formic  acid    . 

2  Acetic      " 

3  Piopylic  acid 

4  Butyric      " 

5  Valerianic  acid 

G  Oi.proic        " 

7  (Enanthylio  " 

8  Caprylic       " 

9  Pelargonic   " 

10  Capric          " 

11  Miirgaritic    " 

12  I  aurosteario" 

13  Ooeinic        " 

14  M         J      " 

15  Benio           " 

16  Ethalic        " 

17  Margonio      " 

18  Basic            " 

*  Handbook  of  Organic  Chemutry,  8d  Kdition. 
Loudon,  1852. 


hy  William  Gregory. 


'    I 


118 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


19  Bivlenic    acid  .  .  .  .  =  C;«  Il.a  0^ 

20  Behenic     "  .  .  .  .  =  Ca  Hi.  O4 

21  Cerotic       "  .  .  .  .  =  C^  U54  O4 

22  Melissic     "  .  .  .  .  =  Csu  Hao  O4 

Here  we  sec  the  quantities  increased  by  tbe  number  2, 
while  the  oxygen  4  is  constant. 

By  his  able  and  ingenious  researches  Laurent  discovered 
a  law  of  substitution,  by  which  one  element  is  replaced  by 
another,  according  to  a  perfect  and  harmonious  system. 
The  correctness  of  this  doctrine  received  confirmation  by 
Dumas,  Dr.  Ilofraann,  and  Baron  Liebig,  and  its  opponents 
yielded  up  their  views  to  its  facts. 

"Of  fifteen  elements,  the  equivalents  of  ten  of  them,  or 
two-thirds,  are  represented  by  whole  numbers,  that  is,  they 
are  exact  multiples  of  that  of  hydrogen,  the  lightest  of 
them  all.     They  are —  * 

"Hydrogen =      TO 

Oxygen '     .  =      8'0 

Nitrogen =    l-i'O 

Sulphur =    lC-0 

Bromine =    80-0 

Iodine =  125-0 

Fluorine =    19-0 

Pliospiiorus =    32'0 

Arsenic =75  0 

Carbon G.O 

"  If  only  ten  of  these  were  known  to  us,  the  law  would 
immediately  be  assumed  that  the  equivalents  of  the  melalloidal 
elements  are  exact  multiples  of  the  equivalent  of  hydrogen* 

A  series  of  types  has  therefore  been  discovered.  Those 
typee  consist  of  different  elements,  and  to  which  other 
simple  substances  may  be  added,  or  replaced  while  the  ori- 

*  Ktements  of  Chemixtry.    By  M.  V.  Regnault.    Vol.  i.,  p.  847. 


•% 


r:-r   !>Y  ; 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS.  119 

ginal  type  is  preserved.  The  series  of  volatile  oily  acids  is 
only  one  of  a  number  of  such  series  already  made  out,  and 
to  which  the  oils  distilled  from  oleaginous  and  bituminous 
bodies  must  be  added.  These  series  are  homologous.  Each 
member  of  them  differs  from  the  others  by  a  certain  num- 
ber of  the  equivalents  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  by  a 
multiple  of  them.  In  their  properties  these  compounds  are 
perfectly  analogous,  and  only  differ  in  degree,  and  the 
difference  is  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  they  contain. 

Taking  the  example  given  by  Dr.  Grregory, 

"  Pyroxilic  spirit  is C2  H4  0^ 

Alcohol  is Ci  Hg  O2 

Co  H    O, 

Cg    Hio  O2 

Oil  of  potato  is       ...        .  do  H12  O2 

Then  the  alcohol  and  pyroxilic  spirit  differ  by  G3  II2. 
The  oil  of  potato  and  pyroxilic  r>pirit  differ  by  4  C3  Hj. 
The  compounds  between  the  oil  of  potato  and  alcohol  have 
not  been  discovered. 

When  a  series  of  substances,  especially  if  derived  from 
the  same  source,  is  discovered  to  have  analogous  properties, 
it  may  be  presumed  that  their  compounds  are  homologous. 
Although  some  of  the  members  of  the  group,  or  links  in 
the  chain,  are  undiscovered,  they  may  yet  be  obtained,  and 
the  perfect  series  completed.  It  is  only  a  few  years  since 
two  of  the  acids  obtained  by  the  oxidation  of  alcohol — the 
formic  (Ca  H  O3)  and  acetic  C4  II3  0;;) — were  known.  Now 
recent  discoveries  have  filled  up  the  series  to  sixty  equi- 
valents of  carbon. 

The  alcohols  and  ethers,  and  the  acids  of  their  different 

series,  differ  by  Ca  Hg,  or  multiples  of  one  or  both  of  these 

numbers.    Still,  in  all  the  members  of  a  group  there  is  a 

Q 


120 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


family  likeness.  Here,  also,  the  boiling  point,  and  the 
density  of  the  vapor,  are  governed  by  the  proportion  of 
carbon  present.  Ethyle,  methyle,  etc.,  have  their  deriva- 
tives. Each  of  these  derivatives  is  the  starting-point  of  a 
series  of  homologues.  M.  Dumas,  Dr.  Gregory,  and  others, 
have  brought  to  notice  the  great  analogy  between  ihe  ele- 
mentary groups — chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  potassium, 
sodium,  lithium,  etc.,  and  homologous  organic  groups. 
Every  organic  compound  belongs  to  some  series  in  which 
each  individual  member  of  the  elementary  substances  is 
increased  or  diminished  by  certain  regular  and  fixed  quan- 
tities. The  fact  may  be  again  repeated,  that  tlie  oils  before 
described  as  resulting  from  the  distillation  of  the  different 
oleaginous  and  bituminous  compounds,  are  not  each  a 
single  oil  of  their  kind,  but  consist  of  many  members,  which 
form  a  series  of  oils  distinct  one  from  the  other.  They  have 
the  same  root,  but  differ  in  the  branches.  Each  mem- 
ber of  all  their  several  groups  contains  a  different  num- 
ber of  the  equivalents  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  forming 
chains  which  rise,. step  by  step,  from  the  solid  to  tie  liquid, 
and  from  a  dense  liquid  to  a  light  and  extremely  volatile 
spirit,  and  finally  to  a  gas.  Again,  each  of  those  members 
is  capable  of  forming  entirely  new  series  of  compounds, 
when  combined  with  other  elements.  As  regards  the  original 
oily  groups,  when  their  components  of  carbon  and  nitrogen 
are  the  same,  their  properties  will  be  the  same,  incspective 
of  their  origin.  They  will  give  the  same  amount  of  light 
when  burned  in  lamps,  and  be  equally  applicable  lo  useful 
purposes.  This  likeness  can  only  be  discovered  by  their 
specific  gravity,  boiling  points,  and,  more  important  than 
all,  by  their  ultimate  analysis  by  the  chemist.     As  all 


those  oils  are  capable  of  affording  light,  and   the   term 
"photogen"   applies  only  to  one  of  them,  the   appella 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


121 


tiou  of  hydro-carbon,  or  lamp  oils,   has  been  applied  to 
all  that  are  now  consumed  for  illuminating  purposes. 

As  the  oils  here  treated  of  consist  of  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen, some  notice  may  be  taken  of  those  two  elements. 
Carbon  occurs  abundantly  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral  kingdoms.  In  its  pure  and  crystallized  state  it 
constitutes  the  diamond.  It  is  the  chief  substance  of  plum- 
bago, and  frequently  forms  more  than  ninety  per  cent,  of 
anthracite  coal.  It  is  essential  to  the  organization  of  ani- 
mals, and  enters  extensively  into  the  composition  of  mine- 
rals, especially  the  varieties  of  coal,  bitumen,  petroleum, 
etc.,  and  all  substances  of  vegetable  origin.  Carbon  appears 
also  in  the  gases  of  coal  mines,  as  carburetted  hydrogen,  or 
fire-damp,  or  carbonic  acid,  or  choke-damp.  When  organic 
matter  is  beated  in  close  vessels,  volatile  substances  are 
expelled ;  these  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygon;  the  residue  is  carbon  mixed  with  the  ash — the 
minerals  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  wood.  Car- 
bon is  without  taste  or  smell,  and  insoluble.  It  resists 
decomposition,  and,  when  buried  in  the  earth,  is  imperish.- 
able. 

Combined  with  oxygen,  carbon  forms  two  gaseous  com 
jDOunds,  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide.  Carbonic  oxide 
may  be  considered  a  compound  radical.  It  combines  with 
chlorine,  oxygen,  and  the  metals.  It  is  a  transparent, 
colorless  gas,  without  taste  or  smell,  and,  when  inhaled,  is 
fatal  to  animal  life.  This  gas  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  a 
fine  blue  flame,  which  is  often  seen  on  the  surface  of  coals 
burning  in  a  grate. 

Carbonic  acid  is  formed  by  the  respiration  of  animal?, 
and  by  vinous  fermentation.  It  is  a  product  of  combus- 
tion, and  is  produced  artificially  by  the  action  of  acids  upon 
carbonate  of  lime.     It  is  a  colorless  gas,  and  so  much  hea- 


122 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


vier  tlian  air,  that  it  may  be  contained  in  open  vessels. 
The  effervescing  properties  of  wine,  beer,  soda-water,  and 
some  mineral  waters,  arise  from  the  presence  of  this  acid. 
It  forms  the  food  of  growing  plants,  a  part  of  which  they 
retain  in  their  structures.  Another  part  is  expelled,  and  is 
found  in  the  atmosphere. 

Hydrogen  forms  one-ninth  part,  by  weight,  of  water,  and 
exists  in  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  It  has  neither 
taste,  color,  nor  smell,  and  is  the  lightest  substance  dis- 
covered in  nature.  It  is  nearly  sixteen  times  lighter  than 
oxygen,  and  fourteen  and  a  half  times  lighter  than  air.  It 
was,  therefore,  first  employed  in  floating  air  balloons.  A 
pressure  of  a  thousand  atmospheres  has  no  sensible  effect 
in  the  condensation  of  hydrogen  gas.  Sound  moves  with 
three  times  the  velocity  in  hydrogen  that  it  does  in  com- 
mon air,  and  it  refracts  light  with  more  power  than  any 
other  gas.  The  greater  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  present 
in  any  body,  the  less  will  be  its  weight,  or  specific  gravity. 
It  is  thus  with  the  hydro-carbon  oils.  Hydrogen  is  also 
the  most  inflammable  substance  in  nature ;  it  burns  with 
an  almost  colorless  flame,  and  great  heat.  The  opinion  is 
entertained  by  some,  that  hydrogen  is  a  gaseous  metal,  as 
mercury  is  a  liquid  metal. 

Carbon  and  Hydrogen^  hydro-carbons. — Carbon  and  hydro- 
gen combine  in  a  great  number  of  proportions,  and  conse- 
quently produce  numerous  compounds ;  and  as  both  ele- 
ments are  combustible,  their  compounds  are  also  combusti- 
ble and  inflammable.  By  some  these  compounds  are  called 
carbo-hydrogens.  At  the  ordinary  temperatures,  some  of 
these  are  solid,  such  as  paraffin,  naphthalin,  etc. ;  others 
are  liquid,  as  the  oils  of  lemons,  naphtha,  etc.  Two  of 
them  are  gaseous,  namely,  light  carburetted  hydrogen  gas, 
and  olefiant  gas,  which  are  the  roots  of  two,  if  not  more, 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


123 


series  of  compounds.  All  these  compounds  are  the  pro- 
duets  of  vegetables,  or  they  are  produced  from  the  decay 
or  destructive  distillation  of  organic  matter. 

Carburelted  hydrogen  (C,  Hj)  mixed  with  atmospheric  air 
is  the  explosive  fire-damp  of  coal  mines,  and  it  frequently 
issues  from  the  earth  through  fissures  connected  with  beds 
of  coal,  or  collections  of  petroleum.  When  mixed  with 
twice  its  volume,  of  oxygen,  it  explodes  with  great  vio- 
lence. If  mixed  with  about  six  times  its  volume  of  air,  it 
also  explodes.  By  this  mixture  gasometers  have  been 
blown  up  with  terrible  effect. 

Bi-carburetted  hydrogen,  or  oJefiant  gas  (Cj  II.^),  mixed  with 
the  above  and  other  gases,  occurs  in  coal  mines.  It  is  also 
transparent  and  colorless.  It  takes  fire  readily,  and  burns 
with  a  white  flame,  giving  out  much  light.  It  is  also  the 
root  of  an  extensive  series  of  hydro-carbons.  This  gas  and 
the  preceding  carburetted.  hydrogen,  when  pure,  form  what 
is  known  as  coal  gas,  now  extensively  employed  to  light 
cities.  Its  value  depends  much  upon  the  quantity  of  ole- 
fiant  gas  contained  in  the  mixture. 

The  light  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  hydro- 
carbon oils  is  like  that  of  coal  gas.  It  is  from  gas  in  both 
instances.  The  oils  are  put  in  lamps,  and  inflamed  ;  the 
gas  is  produced  at  the  top  of  the  wick,  and  decomposed 
instantaneously.  In  the  other  instance,  the  gas  is  made  by 
heating  the  coals  in  retorts,  and  storing  it  in  gasometers 
ready  for  use,  and  its  distribution  through  pipes  and 
burners.  In  the  benzole,  or  atmospheric  light,  the  vapor 
of  the  hydro-carbon  is  conveyed  in  the  air  to  the  burner, 
and  there  burned  as  coal  gas.  The  fluctuations  in  the  con- 
densation of  this  vapor  by  changes  of  temperature 
are  impediments  to  this  mode  of  supplying  artificial 
light. 


■rf-^'j       ^m     .  A^      ^ 


124 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


Homologous  series  obtained  from  coal  tar.    The  radical  is 
Cio  H^ ;  the  multiple  is  C^  Hj. 


Boiling  point 

Spec,  gro 

Cio  Hi 

135° 

CiaHs 

Benzole .    . 

.     .     18G 

850 

Cu  Hg 

Toluene .    . 

.     .     237 

870 

Ci6  Hio 

Xylole  .^. 

.    .     288 

Cig  Hia 

Cumole  .    . 

.    .    339 

Cao  Hi4 

Cymole  .     . 

.    .    490  *     • 

It  will  be  here  observed  that  the  boiling  point  rises 
25'6''  for  every  additional  equivalent  of  carbon.  By  the 
action  of  chlorine,  bromine,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  each  of  the 
above  hydro-carbons  forms  the  root  of  other  distinct  and 
well-defined  series.f 

Homologous  series  obtained  from  the  bitumen  of  Trinidad^ 
distilled  at  a  low  heat  .•  ■ 


No. 

1 

Carbon. 

4 

Hydrog. 

3 

Sp.  grav.      ] 

0-710 

Joilirg  poi 
130° 

2 

6 

4 

0-720 

155 

3 

6 

6 

0.730 

180 

4 

7 

6 

0.740 

205 

5 

8 

7 

0.750 

230- 

6 

9 

8 

0.760 

255 

7 

10 

9 

0.770 

280 

8 

11 

10 

0.780 

305 

9 

12 

11 

0.790 

830 

10 

13 

12 

0.800 

355 

11 

14 

13 

0.810 

380 

12 

16 

14 

0.820 

405 

13 

16 

15 

0-830 

430 

14 

17 

16 

0-840 

455 

16 

18 

17 

0-850 

480 

16 

19 

18 

0-800 

505 , 

Embracing  the  hydro- 
carbon  oils    .suitable   for 
.  lamps.      Specific'  gravity 
of  the  whole  when  mixed 
0-819. 


*  Generally  represented  as  Cao  I 'is. 

\  See  Gregory's  Handbook  of  Organic  Ghemidry,  3d  edit.,  p.  129. 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


125 


Ko. 

Carbon. 

Ilydrog.           8p  grnv. 

Boiling  point 

17 

20 

19               0-870 

530 

18 

21 

20               0-880 

555 

19 

22 

21  Paraffin  0-890 

580* 

A  sample  of  petroleum  from  Western  Virginia  produced 
a  series  of  oils  agreeing  witli  the  foregoing,  but  there  is 
much  diversity  in  the  character  of  the  petroleum  in  regard 
to  their  densities  and  boiling  points,  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  denser  oils  require  a  higher  degree  of  heat  for  their 
distillation  than  oils  of  the  same  specific  gravity  obtained 
from  coals. 

The  bitumen  of  Cuba,  Albert  coal,  bituminous  shale  of 
Albert  county,  the  petroleum  of  Virginia,  and  candle  tar, 
produce  the  same  stories  of  hydro-carbons. 

The  series  obtained  from  Breckenridge  coal,  distilled  at 
an  average  heat  of  780°,  was  as  follows : 


No. 

Carbon. 

nydrog. 

1 

4 

2    Supposed  to  exist,  but  not  condensed., 

2 

6 

4 

3 

8 

6" 

4 

10 

8 

6 

12 

10 

Embracing    the    hydro-carbon    oils 

6 

14 

12 

■  suitable  for  lamps  wheu  mixed.     Spec. 

r 

16 

14 

gray.  0-j819. 

8 

18 

16 

9 

20 

18- 

10 

22 

20 

ParaflBn. 

A  coal  from  Kanawha,  Virginia,  wheu  distilled  at  a  heat 
of  900°,  gave  part  of  a  series  thus : 

*  There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the  condition  of  a  liquid 
when  it  is  said  to  boil.  In  taking  the  boiling  points  of  the  foregoing,  the  oils 
were  allowed  tc  bo  in  a  state  of  full  ebullition,  and  distillation  coinraonced  at 
the  times  when  the  heat  was  recorded  by  the  Thermometer,  the  barometer 
being  at  30 — Fractions  were  omitted. 


126 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 


Vo. 

Ctrbon.               llydrog. 

1 

8                   4 

3 

12                   8 

4 

tie             12 

4 

18                  16 

Caoutchouc  was 

distilled  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  the 

following 

was  the  series  produced : 

No. 

i.  Carbon. 

Hjrdrog.               Sp.  gn7.              Boiling  point 

1 

8 

7                   678                   94 

2 

9 

8 

3 

10 

9 

4 

11 

10 

6 

13 

11 

« 

14 

12 

Other  series  of  hydro-carbons  might  be  laid  down ;  but 
the  foregoing  are  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of 
a  system  which  cannot  be  carried  forward  to  perfection 
without  great  labor  and  research.  This  system  is  being 
gradually  extended  to  every  branch  of  chemistry,  and  is 
bringing  the  science  into  a  beautiful  harmony  with  mathe- 
matics, and  its  kindred  study,  Astronomy. 

To  the  manufacturer  it  is  of  the  first  importance.  It 
teaches  him  that  he  has  to  deal  with  a  great  variety  of 
compounds.  An  increase  in,  the  degree  of  heat  employed 
in  his  operations  will  change  the  properties  of  the  products, 
increase  the  proportion  of  carbon,  and  defeat  him  in  his 
objects.  A  temperature  too  low  will  give  results  to  disap- 
point him.  He  cannot  fail  to  observe  the  different  proofs 
at  which  his  oils  flow  from  the  still,  and  the  constant 
increase  of  heat  required  to  produce  them  in  the  process  of 
refining  and  purifying ;  and  having  obtained  even  an  in- 
distinct view  of  the  point  he  would  reach,  his  skill  and 
experience  will  bring  to  him  that  knowledge  of  his  art 
he  desires. 


OXIDATION  or  IMPURITIES  IN  HYDRO-CARBON  OILS.  127 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Oxidation  of  the  impurities  contained  in  crude  liydrocarbon  oils. — Action  of 
acids,  alkalies,  and  otlier  ugents. — Sulphuric  ncid,  nitric  acid,  permanga- 
nate of  potash. — Methods  of  purification. — Extracts  from  patents,  etc. 

When  oils  were  first  distilled  from  coals,  few  attempts 
were  made  to  free  them  from  their  offensive  odors,  or 
remove  their  coloring  matters.  The  onlj'^  mode  practised 
was  fractional  distitlation,  which  is  altogether  quite  inef- 
fectual for  that  purpose.  Although  the  oil  made  by  tlie 
Earl  of  Dundonald  in  1781  was  burned  in  lamps,  it  does 
Dot  appear  that  any  process  of  purification  was  practised  at 
that  time.  The  earliest  mode  of  purifying  petroleum  was 
simply  to  distil  it  with  water,  and  this  is  more  beneficial 
than  some  of  the  modes  practised  in  the  present  day,  by 
which  the  characters  of  the  oils  are  changed  and  their  illu- 
minating powers  deteriorated. 

The  great  number  of  impurities  contained  in  the  oils  dis- 
tilled from  coals,  whether  from  coal  tar  or  crude  coal  oil, 
renders  their  purification  somewhat  difiicult,  expensive,  and 
uncertain.  The  varieties  of  coals  and  other  substances- 
employed  to  obtain  hydro-carbon  oils,  the  fluctuations  of 
heat  in  distillation,  and  varying  qualities  of  reagents,  will 
ever  require  the  care  and  skill  of  the  practical  chemist  to 
overcome  them.  Much  has  been  done  in  the  purification 
of  those  oils,  much  is  still  to  be  performed  before  they  are 
made  perfect,  namely,  free  from  all  offensive  odor,  and  free 
from  color.  The  great  difference  observed  in  the  qualities 
of  the  oils  in  the  market  arises  less  from  the  different  modes 


.    !.^     ,.!;■   ..,V... 


. -L, 


128    ACIDS,  ALKALIES,  AND  OTHER  OXIDATING  AGENTS. 

by  which  those  oils  aro  treated,  than  from  the  properties  of 
the  coal  iVoin  which  they  were  distilled. 


ACIDS,   ALKALIES,   AND  OTHER  OXIDATINO  AGENTS. 


Acids,  alkalies,  peroxide  of  manganese,  permanganate  of 
potash,  bichromate  of  potash,  etc.,  have  been  unsparingly 
used  in  the  purification  of  hydro-carbon  oils,  on  account  of 
their  oxidating  properties.  The  object  of  chemists  has 
been  to  impart  oxygen  to  the  impurities,  by  which  they 
separate  themselves  from  the  oils,  and  generally  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  that  contains  them. 

« 

The  oxidation  of  organic  compounds  takes  place  in  seve- 
ral ways.  In  combustion  atmospheric  oxygen  is  aided  by 
a  high  temperature.  If  the  supply  of  air  be  deficient,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  burning  lamp,  the  hydrogen,  from  a  greater 
attraction  for  oxygen,  is  oxidated,  and  the  carbon  of  the 
oil  appears  in  smoke  or  soot.  The  decay  of  wood  is  pro- 
duced by  oxidation,  and  ulmino  is  the  result.  So  also  in 
some  of  the  impurities  in  hydro-carbon  oils;  their  combi- 
nation with  oxygen  gives  them  new  characters,  by  which 
they  no  longer  remain  with  their  native  liquids.  Eeagents 
may  be  applied  to  oils  that  will  not  separate  from  them 
until  exposed  to  the  heat  of  distillation.  By  its  oxidating 
l^ropertics  permanganate  of  potash  converts  sugar  into 
oxalic  acid.  Bichromate  of  potash  diluted  with  sulphuric 
acid  converts  salicine  into  the  hydruret  of  salicile,  or  oil  of 
spirea.  Organic  substances  are  oxidated  by  the  atmosphere, 
and  its  action  promoted  by  a  high  temperature.  Hot  air 
has  therefore  been  forced  through  hydro-carbon  oil  during 
the  process  of  purification,  and,  in  some  instances,  with 
advantage. 


ACTION  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID. 


129 


Action  of  sulphuric  acid. — In  general,  when  sul{)liuric 
acid  is  applied  to  organic  compounds  (and  such  arc  the  oils 
under  consideration),  it  deccmposes,  or  chars  them.  By 
the  aid  of  heat  its  effecta  are  more  powerful,  and  it  trans- 
mutes starch  and  lignine  into  grape  sugar.  Its  action  upon 
naphthalin  and  other  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
Las  been  before  noticed.  Parallin  is  not  sensibly  affected, 
when  boiled  with  sulphuric  acid.  For  this  reason  it  is 
employed  in  the  purification  of  that  substance,  as  it  abso- 
lutely burns  out  all  its  impurities.  Sulphuric  acid,  or  oil 
.■/f  vitriol,  is  now  universally  used  in  the  purification  of  coal 
oils,  by  which  some  of  their  impurities  are  converted  into 
tar,  or  rendered  soluble  in  Water.  The  acid  may  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  tar  by  distillation.  This  acid  always  decom- 
poses a  part  of  the  oils  in  proportion  to  its  strength  and 
the  quantity  employed.  It  is  a  powerful  purifier.  It 
removes  one  kind  of  odor  and  substitutes  another  less  dis- 
agreeable. How  far  it  changes  the  characters  of  the  oils 
has  not  been  determined ;  but  in  some  instances,  when  it  is 
used  in  large  quantities,  there  can  be  no  doubt  it  produces 
what  may  be  called  su/pho-oils,  which  are  unchangeable  by 
the  use  of  alkalies.  Certain  it  is  that  these  sulpho-oils  are 
quite  dissimilar  to  the  natural  oils  obtained  by  the  frac- 
tional distillation  of  coal  oils,  and  are  inferior  to  them  for 
the  purjioscs  of  illumination.  The  powerful  eftects  of  the 
before-mentioned  acid  in  removing  impurities  from  the  dis- 
tillates of  coal,  and  i  o  cheapness,  have  brought  it  into  gene- 
ral use.* 

Action  of  nitric  acid. — The  operations  of  nitric  acid  upon 
organic  substances  are  very  numerous.  It  usually,  if  not 
always,  produces  one  or  more  acids.    From  gum  there 


*  Tho  uvcrngo  apecilic  gravity  of  commercial  sulpliuric  acid  is  I'SOO.    It 
sometimes  contains  nitric  acid 


180 


PURIFICATION   OP   nYDRO-OARBON   OILS. 


comes  mucio  nciil ;  from  indigo,  indigotic  and  nitro-picrio 
acids ;  from  Btenric  ncid,  margaric  acid,  etc.  Laurent  has 
clearly  described  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  naphtha- 
lin. 

Benzole  admits  of  having  its  hydrogen  replaced  by  one, 
two,  or  three  equivalents  of  nitric  ncid.  This  remark 
applies  equally  to  eupion  and  all  the  lighter  products  dis- 
tilled from  coals,  petroleum,  etc.  All  these  compounds 
have  an  aromatic  odor.  As  an  instance,  when  benzole  is 
saturated  with  fuming  nitric  acid,  and  water  is  added  to  the 
hot  solution,  nitro-benzole  subsides  as  a  yellow  oil  with  the 
odor  of  cinnamon.  It  is  sold  as  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 
Other  light  hydro-carbons  give  similar  results,  and  a  great 
number  of  oils,  useful  for  perfumery  and  cookery,  may  be 
produced  from  them. 

As  an  oxidator  nitric  acid  is  more  powerful  than  sul- 
phuric acid  ;  but  it  exerts  a  greater  action  on  the  oils  them- 
selves, changing  them  into  nitro  oils,  and  removing  them 
further  away  from  the  natural  products  of  the  material 
first  employed. 

Permanganate  of  potash  must  be  included  among  the 
materials  used  for  oxidating  the  impurities  contained  in 
distilled  oils.  Its  effects  are  feeble  when  compared  with 
those  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  its  price  is  too  great  a  draw- 
back on  the  profits  of  the  manufacturer. 


METHODS    EMPLOYED  FOR  THE    PURIFICATION   OF  HYDRO- 
CARBON OILS. 

The  earliest  writers  on  the  production  of  oils  from  coals 
and  other  analogous  substances,  did  not  describe  any  very 
satisfactory  mode  by  which  those  oils  could  be  purified. 
Selligue  was  perhaps  the  first  to  supply  a  method  for  this 


MANSriKLD'S  PROCESS. 


131 


purpoao;  and  it  nppenrs  in  tho  voluminous  ppecificution 
of  his  patent.*  lie  commenced  by  imitating  ibo  oils  with 
sulphuric,  muriatic,  or  nitric  nciil.  The  agitation  was  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  so  that  every  particle  of  the  oil 
shouKl  bo  brought  in  contact  with  the  acid,  and  a  certain 
change  of  color  had  taken  place.  His  agitators  were  of 
peculiar  construction,  and  he  hiw  deacribcd  them  at  length. 
After  the  oil  and  acid  had  been  allowed  time  to  separate, 
the  former  was  decanted  and  washed  with  soap-maker's  lye, 
proof  3(}"^  to  88°  Baume.  Thus  a  part  of  the  coloring 
matter  wa.s  prccipitateil,  although  some  of  the  lye  was  sub- 
sequently permitted  to  go  into  the  still  w'th  the  oils. 
Fractional  distillation  v  was  also  resorted  to,  wliich  with 
variations  in  the  above  mode  enabled  the  chemist  to  pro- 
duce oils  of  good  quality.  The  specification  of  Selligue 
was  written  with  great  care  ;  but  his  operations  were  com- 
plex and  expensive.  Tho  alternate  use  of  acids  and  alka- 
lies forms  tho  principal  feature  in  the  purification  of  tUcao 
oils  at  the  present  time. 


Mansfield's  process. 

In  1847  C.  B.  Mansfield  of  Cambridge,  England,  obtained 
a  patent  for  the  "purification  of  spirituous  substances  and 
oils"  derived  from  coal  tar,  &c.  Of  the  products  of  coal 
tar  he  describes  five,  namely,  alliole,  benzole,  toluole,  cam- 
phole,  mortuole,  and  nitro-benzole ;  for  each  of  these 
classes  he  modified  the  treatment.  To  alliole  and  benzole, 
he  applied  diluted  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid,  and  agi 
tated  the  mixture,  which  was  allowed  to  settle,  when  the 
acid  and  impurities  were  drawn  off.     The  spirits  and  oils 


■•■  SpecidcatioQ  No.   10,7iid,  finglish  Patent  OCBco. 
Buiason. 


Translated  by  Du 


132 


young's  process. 


were  then  agitated  with  water,  which  was  also  afterwards 
removed,  and  the  spirits  and  oils  placed  in  a  vessel  of  fresh 
burnt  lime,  and  finally  rectified  by  distillation.  The  tolu- 
ole,  etc.,  were  purified  by  a  similar  method,  except  that 
stronger  and  greater  quantities  of  the  acids  were  employed, 
and  the  number  of  distillations  increased.  The  specifica- 
tion of  this  patent  is  also  of  great  length,  and  directed  to 
objects  foreign  to  the  purification  of  the  oils  derived  from 
bituminous  substances. 


young's  process. 


This  alleged  improvement  consists  in  treating  bituminous 
coals  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  therefrom  an  oil  con- 
taining paraffin,  which  is  denominated  "  paraffin"  oil,  and 
from  which  Mr.  Young  obtains  paraffin.  He  employs 
"  Parrot  coal,"  "cannel  coal,"  and  "  gas  coal."  These  are 
broken  up  to  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  distilled  in 
common  gas  retorts  with  worm  pijjes  and  the  ordinary  refri- 
gerators of  stills,  the  water  in  them  being  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  55°  Fah.,  by  a  stream  of  cold  water 
entering  the  worm  cistern.  The  retort  is  kept  at  a  low 
red  heat.  The  retort  is  heated  up  gradually,  and  the  pro- 
duct is  an  oil  containing  paraffin. 

The  crude  oil  is  put  into  a  cistern,  and  steam  heat  applied 
up  to  about  156°.  This  separates  some  of  the  impurities, 
and  the  oil  is  run  off  into  another  vessel,  leaving  the  impu- 
rities behind.  The  oil  is  then  distilled  in  an  iron  still  with 
a  worni  pipe  and  refrigerator,  the  water  in  the  latter  being 
kept  at  55°  Fah.  The  oil  thus  distilled  is  then  agitated 
with  ten  per  cent  of  oil  of  vitriol  one  hour.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  settle  twelve  hours,  when  it  is  drawn  off  from 


KEROSENE  PKOCESS. 


133 


the  acid  and  impurities  into  an  iron  vessel,  where  it  is 
again  agitated  with  four  per  cent,  of  the  solution  of  caustic 
soda  of  specific  gravity  1'300.  Six  hours  are  again  allowed 
for  the  alkali  and  impurities  to  settle,  when  the  oil  is  again 
drawn  off  and  distilled  with  half  its  bulk  of  water;  water 
being  run  into  the  still  from  time  to  time  to  supply  the 
quantity  distilled  off.  The  lighter  oil  comes  over  with  the 
steam,  and  is  employed  for  illumination.  The  oil  left  in 
the  still  is  carefully  separated  from  all  water  and  put  into  a 
leaden  vessel,  and  there  agitated  with  two  per  cent,  of  oil 
of  vitriol.  It  is  then  allowed  to  settle  twenty-four  hours. 
This  oil  is  then  run  into  another  vessel,  and  to  everv  100 
gallons  there  are  added  twenty-eight  pounds  of  chalk, 
ground  up  with  water  ijjto  a  paste.  The  oil  and  chalk  arc 
agitated  together  until  the  oil  is  freed  from  acid.  After  it 
nas  remained  a  week  at  rest,  it  is  used  for  lubricating 
machinery,  and  may  be  mixed  with  animal  or  vegetable 
oils  for  that  purpose.  To  obtain  the  paraffin  the  t)il  con- 
taining it  is  brought  down  to  a  temperature  of  30°  Fah., 
when  paraffin  will  crystallize  and  separate  itself  from  the 
oil,  or  it  may  be  filtered  and  finally  sub;nitted  to  pressure. 
Again  it  is  agitated  with  its  bulk  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  the 
operation  repeated  until  the  acid  ceases  to  be  colored  by 
the  paraffin,  which  is  kept  melted  during  tiie  opera- 
tion.* 

KEROSENE   PROCESS. 


The  specification  describes  the  process  for  obtaining  oils, 
denominated  Kerosene,  from  "  bitumen  wherever  found." 
The   Kerosene  consists  of   three   distinct  hydro-carbons, 


Extracted  from  the  patent  of  James  Youujj. 


184 


KEROSENE  PROCESS. 


namely,  A  Kerosene,  B  Kerosene,  and  C  Kerosene.  The 
C  Kerosene,  or  that  which  is  employed  in  lamps,  may  be 
formed  by  an  admixture  of  the  light  with  the  heavier  oils, 
until  the  specific  gravity  is  raised  up  to  about  0*800,  water 
being  1000.  The  first  part  of  the  process  consists  in  sub- 
mitting the  raw  material  to  dry,  or  decomposing  distilla- 
tion, in  large  cast  iron  retorts  at  a  temperature  not  exceed- 
ing 800°.  The  condensation  of  the  vapors  is  effected  in 
iron  pipes,  or  chambers,  surrounded  by  water. 

"  The  liquid  products  of  this  distillation  are  heavy  tar 
and  water,  or  ammoniacal  liquor,  which  lie  at  the  bottom 
of  the  receiver,  and  a  lighter  fluid  which  floats  above 
them."  The  heavy  fluids  and  the  light  are  separated  by 
drawing  off  one  from  the  other.  "  The  heavy  liquids  may 
be  utilised  or  disposed  of  advantageously ;  but  they  have 
no  further  connexion  with  this  process."  The  light  liquid 
is  submitted  to  re-distillation  at  the  lowest  possible  heat,  in 
a  common  still  and  a  condenser.  The  products  of  this 
distillation  are  a  light,  volatile  liquid,  which  accumulates 
in  the  receiver,  and  a  heavy  residuum  left  in  the  still,  and 
which  may  be  added  to  the  heavy  liquid  impurities  of  the 
first  distillation. 

The  light  liquid  is  transferred  from  the  receiver  to  a 
suitable  vessel  or  vat,  and  mixed  thoroughly  with  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  strong  sulphuric,  nitric,  or  muriatic 
acid,  according  to  the  quantity  of  tar  present.  Seven  per 
cent,  is  about  the  average  quantity  of  acid  required.  The 
preference  is  given  to  sulphuric  acid.  With  the  acid  and 
oil,  from  one  to  three  per  cent,  of  the  peroxide  of  manga- 
nese is  added,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  agitated  together. 
The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours,  in  order  that  the  impurities  may  sub- 
side.    The  light,  supernatant  fluid  is  now  drawn  off  into 


KEROSENE  PROCESS. 


135 


anotlier  vessel.  The  distillate  ia  then  mixed  with  two  per 
cent,  or  more  of  freshly  calcined  lime,  which  takes  up  any 
water  that  may  be  present,  and  neutralizes  the  acid.  The 
oil  is  then  distilled,  and  finally  rectified,  if  necessary.  The 
product  is  kerosene,  the  lightest  part  of  which  is  called  A 
kerosene,  and  the  two  succeeding  parts  B  and  C  kero- 
sene.* 

The  above  mode  has  been  much  improved  by  the  use  of 
steam,  introduced  into  or  above  the  oils  during  their  distil- 
lation, by  diminishing  the  quantity  of  acid  and  washing  with 
water.  The  latter  removes  much  of  the  soluble  impuri- 
ties. The  A  kerosene  is  perfectly  colorless,  and  hius  a  close 
analogy  to  eupion.  The  remaining  hydio-carbon  oils  are 
of  a  light  straw-color.  They  burn  freely  in  lamps,  without 
incrustation  of  the  wick. 

There  are  a  number  of  oil  monufactories  in  Oermany. 
In  some  of  these  shales  are  used,  in  others  cannel  coal.  The 
coal  is  usually  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  when  it  con- 
tains sulphur  it  is  moistened  with  lime-water.  The  coal 
is  then  thoroughly  dried  in  a  furnace  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  dried  c(#il3  are  distilled  in  common  gas 
retorts,  the  eduction  pipes  of  which  open  at  the  ends  oppo- 
site their  heads.  In  some  instances  the  flame  of  the  fur- 
nace is  not  permitted  to  strike  the  sides  or  upper  surface 
of  the  retort. 

Paul  Wagenmann,  of  Bonn,  Ehenish  Prussia,  in  his 
patent,  states  as  follows : 

"  My  improvements  consist  in  breaking  the  coal  or  bitu- 
minous slate  in  pieces  of  about  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  and 
if  they  are  very  si^phurous  I  sprinkle  them  with  lime- 
water.    They  are  then  taken  to  a  drying-furnace  of  the 


♦  Extruded  from  copies  of  the  kerosene  patents. 


10 


»    I     > 
I   >    I   • 

r    J        «  • 


136 


wagenmann's  process. 


following  construction :  A  space  by  preference  of  two 
hundred  feet  in  length,  and  twenty  feet  in  width,  is  inter- 
sected'by  walls  of  two  feet  high  ;  at  the  distance  of  every 
four  feet  these  walls  are  bound  together  by  arches  of  one 
brick  thick,  and  on  these  arches  the  coals  and  bituminous 
elate  are  spread. 

"  The  space  below  the  arches  is  filled  up  with  the  residue 
from  the  retorts. 

"The  coals  or  bituminous  slate,  when  dried,  are  distilled 
in  retorts  which  are  so  far  different  from  those  used  at  the 
gas-works,  that  the  pipes  for  letting  out  the  produce  of 
distillation  are  on  the  opposite  ends  to  those  where  the 
doors  are.  Over  each  fire  are  two  retorts,  each  by  prefer- 
ence, of  about  eight  feet  long,  and  two  leet  wide,  with  an 
opening  of  five  inches,  to  let  out  the  produce  of  distillation. 
The  fire  runs  below  the  retorts  in  a  direction  from  front  to 
back,  the  fire-bars  only  extending  part  of  the  way.  I  pre- 
fer to  arrange  a  stack  consisting  of  eight  fires  and  sixteen 
retorts  around  one  chimney,  by  which  means  I  am  enabled 
to  lead  the  flame  from  one  fire  to  the  others,  and  by  that 
means  to  heat  the  retorts  by  a  graauated  heat. 

"  The  products  of  distillation  of  the  sixteen  retorts  meet 
together  in  one  iron  pipe  abou^  eighty  feet  long,  and  two 
feet  diameter,  which  is  surrounded  b}''  another,  so  that  cold 
water  can  run  between  the  two  pipes  for  cooling.  The 
gases,  after  having  passed  this  pipe,  enter  into  cylinders, 
about  twelve  feet  in  height  and  four  feet  in  diameter.  These 
cylinders  are  filled  with  iron  wire  chips.  The  gases,  after 
having  passed  the  cylinders,  pass  through  another  iron 
pipe,  forty  feet  high  into  the  air,  which  pipe,  to  regulate 
the  draught,  is  furnished  with  a  regulator. 

"  It  is  important  that  the  produce  of  distillation  should 
not  be  conducted  so  as  to  produce  pressure  in  the  retorts. 


•       •••••         •,•••      *    ,  *  t 

•         •••         •        •••■  ■ 


•  ,  t  ..,11 

«  •      •       <         *  «        •    ,  •        •  • 

•     II        ■       •*      •*      *i 

•^«i       ••<••.     tt*l 

•  fiai  tf«i  I 


wagenmann's  process. 


137 


•'  The  produce  of  distillation  runs  into  a  general  r&ser- 
voir,  and  the  reservoir  is  so  arranged  that  the  condensed 
productions  will  have  an  average  heat  of  30*^  centigrade. 
The  oils  separate  themselves  here  from  the  ammoniacal 
water.  The  ammoniacal  water  is  thrown  over  the  cooled 
residue  of  the  drying  furnaces,  and  mixed  with  it,  which 
produces  a  very  good  manure.  The  tar,  after  being  sepa- 
rated from  ammonia,  is  distilled,  and  the  product  of  distil- 
lation is  cooled  by  the  means  of  a  lead  pipe,  standing  in  a 
cooling  apparatus,  the  water  for  cooling  being  kept  always 
lukewarm.  The  product  of  distillation  is  divided  into 
three  qualities:  No.  I,  from  the  beginning  of  the  distilla- 
tion to  0-865  specific  gravity.  No.  II.  from  0-865-0-900 
specific  gravity.  No.  III.  from  0'900-l*930  specific 
gravity. 

"The  produce  No.  I.  is  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
hydrochloric  acid,  at  a  temperature  of  25'^  centigrade. 
Three  hours  afterwards  the  oil  is  taken  olf  and  washed 
with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  at  6U'^  ceiitigrad'^ :  it  is  left 
two  hours  and  then  separated  from  tlie  solulioji  and  dis- 
tilled. In  the  still  is  mixed  a  concentrated  solution  of  soda. 
After  the  distillation  the  oils  are  light  yellow,  and  give  an 
average  weight  of  0'815-0"8i^5  specific  gravity.  To  cor- 
rect the  smell  I  wash  the"  oils,  again  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  separate  them  from  the  solution,  and 
wash  with  concentrated  solution  of  soda. 

"  The  oil  No.  II.  is  treated  the  same  as  No.  I.,  but  with 
different  quantities  of  acids,  and  at  a  teinjieraturc  of  86'^ 
centigrade.     The  product,  after  the  distillation,  is  a  lighter 

oil. 

"The  oil  No.  III.  is  the  product  for  the  pr.  jiaration  of 
the  finest  oil  and  paraffin  candles.  Tin'  oil  is  tn-atrd  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid,  ;it  a  te!n[M'rature  of 


138 


WAGENMANNS  PROCESS. 


83°  centigrade,  and  allowed  to  stand  ;  it  is  then  separated 
from  the  acids,  and  washed  with  a  solution  of  soda,  at  a 
temperature  of  QO'^  centigrade,  and  distilled.  The  oil  con- 
tains paraffin,  and  is  taken  to  a  cool  cellar  at  an  ave- 
rage temperature  of  12°  centigrade,  where  it  remains  in 
iron  butts  for  eight  days.  After  this  time  the  paraffin  is 
separated  from  the  oil  by  means  of  a  centrifugal  machine 
and  cast  in  cakes,  and  pressed  in  -a  cold  hydraulic  press ; 
afterwards  melted  and  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  then 
separated  and  washed  in  water;  it  is  then  heated  and  cast 
in  cakes,  and  again  pressed  by  a  heated  press;  after- 
wards again  melted  and  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  at  a 
temperature  of  70°  centigrade ;  the  acid  is  drawn  off,  and 
the  paraffin  is  washed  in  water,  after  this  it  is  melted  with 
stearine." 

In  some  instances  the  retorts  are  j^laced  in  a  circle  around 
the  chimney,  and  two  of  them  are  heated  by  one  furnace. 
The  gaseous  products  of  the  distillation  are  conducted  into 
a  large  iron  pipe,  upon  which  a  stream  of  cold  water  plays 
constantly  to  produce  the  necessary  condensation.  The 
"uncondensed  gases  escape  at  the  end  of  the  condensing 
pipe  and  are  lost.  The  oils  and  other  liquid  products  of 
the  distillation  flow  into  a  cistern,  whence  they  are  pumped 
for  purification. 

Having  been  separated  from  the  aqueous  products  the 
oils  are  submitted  to  the  purifying  process.  Some  chemists 
have  the  oils  mixed  with  four  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
in  cast  iron  cisterns,  supplied  with  agitators  worked  by 
machinery.  Next  the  charge  of  oil  is  distilled,  and  for 
this  purpose  various  expedients  have  been  resorted  to. 
Some  distil  in  vacuo,  others  employ  common,  or  superheated 
steam.  The  latter  obtains  the  preference,  especially  for 
the  heavy  oils. 


GERMAN   METHODS. 


139 


The  distillate  is  usuall}'^  divided  into  two  parts.  The 
first  is  permitted  to  run  from  the  still  until  the  specific  gra- 
vity comes  up  to  0*870.  The  second  part  embraces  all  the 
remainder  of  the  distillate.  The  first  part  is  then  agitated 
for  hours  with  six  per  cent,  of  concentiated  sulphuric  acid, 
one-eighth  per  cent,  of  bichromate  of  potash,  and  one-half 
per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  second  part  is  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  except  that  the  sulphuric  acid  is 
increased  to  eight  per  cent.,  with  one-sixth  per  cent,  of 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  one  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  After  the  acid  impurities,  etc.,  have  subsided  they 
are  drawn  off  and  the  oils  are  agitated  two  hours  with  lye 
and  steam. 

The  oils  are  then  distillled,  great  care  being  taken  that 
they  should  not  "  boil  over."  By  this  mode  lamp  oils, 
heavy  oils,  and  paraffin  are  produced.  The  paraffin  is 
put  in  a  cool  place  and  allowed  to  crystallize  in  the  usual 
manner. 

At  Bitterfield  the  coal  is  broken  into  small  pieces  and 
distilled  in  elliptical  retorts  eight  feet  in  length.  The  dis- 
charge pipe  is  of  large  size  and  opposite  the  head  of  each 
retort.  Pressure  upon  the  material  while  it  is  undergoing 
distillation  is  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  purifica- 
tion consists  in  the  alternate  use  of  acids  and  solutions  of 
caustic  alkalies. 

Dr.  Vohl,  of  Bonn,  commences  the  distillation  of  paper 
coal  at  a  low  heat,  which  is  gradually  raised  up  to  a  red 
heat,  and  he  remarks  that  slates  containing  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  water  yielded  the  largest  amount  of  oil.  The 
author  has  observed  the  same  fact  in  the  distillation  of  bitu- 
minous shales  imported  to  New  York  from  Pictou,  Nova 
Scotia.  When  the  retorts  are  first  charged  with  those 
shales,  steam  is  generated  from  the  water  contained  in  them. 


140 


bkooman's  patent. 


i 


With  the  steam  some  of  the  lighter  oils  arc  distilled  over, 
and  with  it  condcuse,  Tlie  effect  is  quite  similar  to  that 
produced  by  admitting  steam  into  the  retort  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  decomposing  distillation.  In  both 
instances  the  quantity  of  oils  is  increased, 

Broomaii's  Patent. — Among  the  list  of  patents  for  the 
purification  of  hydro-carbon  oils,  this  patent,  which  is 
dated  London,  February  28,  1856,  has  been  overlooked, 
with  several  others  of  equal  importance.  The  patent  is 
for  "  improvements  in  treating  bituminous  shale,  Boghead 
mineral,  and  other  like  schistose  bodies,  in  order  to  obtain 
various  coumiercial  products  therefrom." 

The  schistose  bodies  are  first  decomposed  in  common 
retorts.  The  receiver  is  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
retorts,  and  receives  through  pipes  a  part  of  the  gas  gene- 
rated in  them.  Condensation  is  effected  in  icfrigerating 
pipes  kept  cool  by  water.  The  oils  are  treated  in  agita- 
tors, or  purifiers  with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda,  and 
then  distilled  over  again.  The  light  oils  are  separated  from 
the  heavy  for  illuminating  purposes  by  distilling  them 
down  to  proof  32°  (Gay  Lussac's  Areometer),  all  that 
remains  is  separated  fruiii  the  paraffin.  For  this  purpose 
the  heavy  oil  is  placed  in  refrigerators  with  double  bottoms 
and  exposed  to  a  low  temperature,  by  which  the  paraffin  is 
scj)arated.  The  remainder  is  gathered  into  bags  and  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  to  remove  whatever  oil  it  may  coatain.* 
The  products  represented  as  being  obtained  by  this  mode 
are — 

"  1.  Essential  oil. 

"  2.  An  oil  for  lighting  purposes. 

"  3.  A  fatty,  unctuous  oil,  for  lubricating  machinery. 


*  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting  (London),  Sept.  16,  1866. 


bodmer's  patent. 


141 


*'  4.  A  liquid  tar,  for  lubricating  purposes. 

"  5.  A  solid  tar. 

"  6.  A  '  black,'  wbicli  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  printers'  ink. 

"  7.  A  '  black,'  having  the  properties  of  animal  black. 

"8.  Paraffin. 

"  9.  Ammoniacal  water,  containing  six  per  cent,  of  liquid 
ammonia." 

There  is  some  obscurity  in  the  specification  of  this  patent; 
still  the  practical  manufacturer  will  readily  understand, 
from  the  above,  the  nature  of  the  process  employed. 

Bodmer's  indent  is  dated  London,  February  4th,  IS56.'* 

"  Tars  are  taken  which  have  been  produced  by  the  dis- 
tillation of  coal  at  a  hl'jli  temperature,  such  as  are  made  in 
the  manufacture  of  coal  gas.  This  tar,  being  the  cheapest 
at  present,  is  therefore  preferred ;  but  tars  produced  in  a 
similar  manner,  at  a  high  temperature,  from  shale,  peat, 
wood,  and  from  bones,  or  other  animal  substances,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  These  tars  are  placed  in  an  ordinary 
st'll,  into  which  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  is  ploced,  and 
conncct(3d  with  a  worm  immersed  in  water:  this  water  is 
kept  regularl}'  at  a  temperature  of  between  60*^  and  SO'* 
Fah.,  throughout  all  the  distillations.  The  heat  of  the  still 
is  raised  by  lire ;  and  when  the  thermometer  iu  it  rises  to 
30C  Fah.,  the  instrument  is  removed,  and  the  products  of 
distillation  above  200"  are  run  into  another  vessel,  and 
ke{)t  separate  from  the  products  of  distillation  below  300'^. 
The  latter  are  rejected  as  unfit  for  the  purpose.  The  tar  is 
distilled  to  dryness,  which  is  known  to  have  taken  place 
when  products  cease  to  run  from  the  condenser,  tiie  heat 
being  always  kept  up."     "  The  oil  obtained  from  the  coal 


*  Journal  of  Gas-Lighting  (London). 


us 


bodmek's  patent. 


tar  is  purified  as  follows :    This  oil  is  put  into  a  leaden 
tank,  and  to  each  five  hundred  gallons  is  added  ten  gallons 
of  commercial   brown   sulphuric  acid,  of  strength  140° 
Twaddle,  or  about  700  specific  gravity,  and  they  are  well 
agitated  together  for  one  hour.     The  vitriol  is  allowed  to 
subside,  which  will  take  place  in  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and 
is  drawn  off  by  a  stop-cock  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank.     Another  ten  gallons  of  brown  sulphuric  acid  is 
then  added  to  each  five  hundred  gallons  of  the  oil,  and 
agitated  for  four  hours.     The  oil,   after  subsidence,   is 
removed  to  an  iron  vessel,  and  to  each  hundred  gallons  is 
added  ten  gallons  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  marking 
70°  Twaddle,  or  weighing  13-J-  ibs  to  the  gallon.     These 
are  agitated  together  thoroughly  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  ; 
and  it  is  preferred  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  oil  ia  this 
tank  up  to  80°  Fah,,  both  during  the  agitation  with  the 
caustic  soda  and  afterwards,  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.     The 
clear  oil  is  then  removed  into  a  stili,  and  to  each  hundred 
gallons  is  added  about  twenty  lbs.  of  the  soda  ash  of  com- 
merce, 20  lbs.  of  slacked  lime,  and  four  gallons  of  water, 
or  40  lbs.  of  caustic  solution  of  soda,  marking  70°  Twad- 
dle— or  by  measure,  three  gallons,  weighing  13 i  lbs.  to  the 
gallon,  are  taken  for  each  hundred  gallons  of  oil  put  into 
the  still,  and  heat  is  applied.     In  general,  no  oil  will  come 
over  until  the  heat  of  the  still  has  reached  300°  Fah. ;  but 
if  any  should  come  below  this  temperature,  it  is  rejected. 
When  about  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  oil  put  into  the  still 
has  been  ol)tained,  the  process  is  stopped.     The  product  of 
distillation  is  the  improved  lubricating  oil,  which  is  named 
'  new  tar  qil.'     It  may  be  used  either  by  itself  or  mixed 
with  other  oils,  fats,  greases,  and  soaps." 

P.  G.  Barry  places  the  oils  in  wooden  tanks  lined  with 
lead.     In  these  tanks  the  oils  are  agitated  with  five  per 


Bancroft's  patent. 


143 


cent,  of  tlioir  weight  of  aulpliuric  acid,  during  a  period  of 
three  hours.  After  the  acid  and  impurities  have  settled, 
the  oils  are  drawn  off'  iito  a  second  purifying  vessel,  and 
there  agitated  with  five  per  cent,  of  their  weight  of  caustic 
alkali,  or  with  lime  watt.T  sulficient  to  remove  all  the  acid 
present  in  them.  After  the  alkaline  mixture  has  subsided 
the  oils  are  again  distilled. 

Bancroft  obtained  an  English  j)atent  for  the  distillation  of 
hydro-carbon  oils  from  the  petroleum  of  Burniah.  He 
admits  high  pressure  steam  at  fifty  lbs.  to  the  square  inch 
into  his  stills,  and  places  a  fire  beneath  them  until  all  the 
enpion  is  distilled  over.  This  part  of  the  distillate  being 
removed,  the  fire  beneath  the  still  is  increased,  and  the 
ateam  forced  on,  until  about  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  eli.irge 
is  distilled  oft'.  At  the  (jlose  o*"  the  operation  much  paraf- 
fin appears,  which  renders  it  necessary  that  the  condensing 
pipes  should  be  kept  at  a  temper.ature  not  less  than  90° 
Fall.  In  several  instances  the  cooling  down  of  the  con- 
densing apparatus  has  led  to  the  bursting  of  the  still. 

A  process  is  recorded  in  Le  Genie  Tndmtriel,  and  repre- 
sented as  being  the  invention  of  Messrs.  Dumoulin  & 
Cotelle,  by  which  the  heavy  coal  oils  are  made  to  burn  in 
lamps  without  smoke  or  odor.  In  a  close  vessel  they 
place  one  hundred  lbs.  of  crude  coal  oil,  twenty-five  quarts 
of  water,  one  lb.  of  the  chlorido  of  lime,  and  one  half  lb. 
oxide  of  manganese.  The  mixture  is  thoroughly  agitated. 
After  a  repose  of  twenty-four  hours  the  clear  oil  is  decant(^d 
and  distilled.  Next  the  one  hundred  lbs.  of  coal  oil  are 
mixed  with  twenty-five  lbs.  of  rosin  oil,  and  this  is  con- 
sidered the  best  part  of  their  mode.  This  last  mixture  may 
be  distilled  if  necessary.  From  the  high  per  centage  of 
carbon  in  the  heavy  coal  oil,  and  also  in  the  rosin  oil,  it 
will  appear  theoretically  that  this  mixture  cannot  burn 


144 


NUMBER  OF  PATENTS. 


witliout  smokinj^  in.  any  of  the  ordinnry  coftl  oil  lamps,  and 
this  is  found  to  bo  tho  fact  in  practice.  In  an  argand  lamp 
with  a  short-toppod  wick,  and  a  button  over  tho  inner  air 
tube,  or  ill  the  camphcno  lamp,  the  above  oil  will  burn 
with  a  short  llaino  and  brilliant  light,  and  so  also  will  tho 
rosin  oil,  or  tho  heavy  oil,  mixed  or  unmixed ;  but  those 
himps  are  rapidly  falling  into  disuse,  being  supplanted  by 
the  kerosene,  or  coal  oil  lanii). 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  upwards  of  one  hundred 
patents  have  been  granted  for  alleged  new  methods  of 
manufacturing  and  rectifying  oils  distilled  from  coals  and 
other  bituminous  mineral  substances ;  and  upwards  of  forty 
patents  have  been  issued  for  retorts-and  other  apparatus  con- 
nected with  this  branch  of  industry.  A  description  of  the 
various  methods  and  similarities  of  operation,  with  tho 
extraordinary  and  unphilosophi<ud  fancies  set  forth  in  some 
of  those  i)atcnts,  would  not  interest  tiie  practical  man  nor 
thegmeral  reader.  The  extracts  drawn  from  the  foregoing 
patents  have  therefore  been  deemed  sufficient  for  this  brief 
tecimological  treatise,  and  to  direct  the  manufacturer  of  oils 
to  the  valuable  discoveries  now  placed  at  his  hand. 

The  preceding  part  of  this  chapter  will  have  shown  that 
upon  a  few  leading,  and,  as  it  ia  supposed,  essential  opera- 
tions, all  the  patentees  appear  to  agree.  Upon  non-essen- 
tials they  ditfer  as  widely  as  persons  do  in  matters  of  far 
higher  importance. 

it  is  conceded  at  the  present  time — 

1st,  That  the  crude  coal,  or  other  material,  must  first  be 
submitted  to  dry,  or  decomposing  distillation,  and  that  a 
moderate  degree  of  heat  will  produce  more  aud  better  oils 
than  a  high  temperature. 

2<1,  That  the  use  of  a  strong  acid  Ls  necessary  in  the  puri- 
fication of  such  oils. 


MODE  OF    M.VNUFACTUIIK. 


145 


8d,  That  the  acid  must  bo  succociIihI  hy  the  use  of  an 
alkiili. 

4tlj,  That  it  la  necessary  to  distil  tho  oils  after  tho  use  of 
the  aeid  and  alkali. 

It  will  bo  ])erceived  by  the  foregoing  cxtraeta,  from 
patents  for  tho  inantifaeture  and  piirilication  of  oils,  that 
distillation,  acids,  and  alkalies,  form  tho  basis  of  every 
alleged  invention;  but  upon  the  quantities,  the  modes  of 
ap|)lieation,  and  tho  minor  details  of  working,  there  is  much 
disagreement;  and  persons  unskilled  in  cho'nical  science 
have  frequently  introduced  some  peculiar  mode  in  the 
application  of  those  agents,  to  give  novelty  to  their  patents, 
or  to  satisfy  their  employers  of  their  superior  skill. 

Tlic  oils  from  diflerent  coals  require  diflercint  treatment. 
The  oils  of  Albert  coal  (a,s])haltum),  TJoghead  and  Breek- 
enridge  coal  are  easily  purified;  while  the  oils  from  the 
ordinary  American,  English,  and  Scotch  cannels,  require 
more  skill,  and  cost  more  to  bring  them  up  to  a  fair  stan- 
dard among  the  hydro-carbons  sold  in  the  miirk*^t. 

The  author  has  made  more  than  two  th'  >tisand  experi- 
ments in  reference  to  the  manufacture  and  purification  of 
oils  distilled  from  coal,  petroleum,  and  oJiher  materials. 
From  long  practice,  and  the  improvements  introduced  by 
others,  he  ventures  to  lay  the  following  plan  before  his 
readers,  as  being  generally  ap{)licable  to  the  distilled  oils  of 
coal  and  bitumen.  Petroleum  will  be  noticed  in  the  sequel. 
Regarding  the  purification  of  those  oils,  the  present  is  the 
age  of  experiment.  Imj>rovementa  are  constantly  advanc- 
ing, and  some  time  may  elapse  before  iheir  manufacture 
is  brought  to  perfection,  and  the  distil  ed  hydro-carbon  oils 
attain  that  commercial  and  economic  value  they  are  destined 
to  reacli. 


146 


DISTILLERY   FOR  CdAL  OILS. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Buildings  and  Machinery. — Metlxxi  of  Manufacturing  and  Purifying  the  Oils 
distilled  from  Coals  and  other  Bituminous  Substances,  and  the  Products 
derived  therefrom. — Distilling  by  Stem. — Continual  Distillation. — Paraffin, 
— Lubricating  Oils. — Purification  of  Petroleum. — Petroleum  Refinery. — 
Estimate  of  Cost. — Hydrometer  and  Pyrometer. — Cements,  etc. 


DISTILLERY  FOR  COAL  OILS. 

Before  any  suggestions  are  marie  in  reference  to  a  proper 
mode  of  manufacturing  and  purifying  the  hydro-carboa 
oils,  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  manufiictory 
itself  reqtiire  some  notice.  It  is  very  desirable,  in  all  cases, 
that  the  buildings  con.stituting  the  establishment  should  be 
constructed  of  stone  and  brick,  with  iron  roofs.  The  occu- 
pation of  wooden  buildings  is  unsafe ;  when  they  are 
employed,  great  care  is  necessary.  Every  preservative 
against  fire,  by  the  use  of  non-combustible  material  and  the 
command  of  water,  should  be  planned  for  at  the  onset  of 
construction. 

AVhen  coal  is  to  be  di.stilled  in  retorts,  the  retort  house 
should  be  separated  from  the  distillery,  or  refining  house, 
and  all  crude  materials  and  marketable  oils  should  be  kept 
in  separate  stores,  away  from  the  operating  part  of  the 
establishment.  Receivers  of  the  products  of  the  retorts  are 
advantageously  situated  underground.  A  steam  pump, 
communicating  with  cisterns  of  water,  and  supplied  with 
hose  capable  of  reaching  every  building,  should  be  always 
ready  for  action,  while  at  the  same  time  it  performs  the 
offices  required  by  the  manufactory. 


DISTILLERY  FOR   COAL   OILS. 


147 


Between  the  stills  and  the  several  worm-tanks  and 
receivers  it  is  necessary  to  ereci  a  strong  brick  or  stone 
wall,  through  which  the  connecting  pieces  between  the 
stills  and  the  worm  pass.  It  is  also  desirable  to  sej)arate 
the  stills  one  from  the  other  by  partition  walls.  During 
the  distillation,  and  especially  at  its  commencement,  a  light 
hydro-carbon  vapor  frequently  escapes  at  the  lower  extre- 
mity of  the  condensing-pipe.  This  vapor  is  highly  inflam- 
mable, as  well  as  the  lighter  oils  that  accompany  it.  No 
fire  should,  therefore,  ever  be  permitted  in  the  body  of  the 
refinery. 

The  agitators  should  be  placed  at  convenient  heiglits  to 
permit  the  oils  to  flow  from  the  acid  cisterns  into  the  tanks 
where  they  are  to  be  washed  with  the  alkali,  and  to  run 
thence  into  the  stills.  A  good  arrangement  of  the  ma- 
chinery is  of  much  conseq^uence ;  and,  above  all,  the  most 
rigid  cleanliness  should  be  observed  in  every  operation 
connected  with  the  manufactory.  An  abundant  supply  of 
clean,  fresh  water  is  absolutely  necessary. 

The  plan  and  sections  (pp.  148-149)  represent  approved 
arrangements  of  the  building  and  apparatus  of  a  coal  oil 
distillery.  The  number  of  distillations  being  much  greater 
than  those  for  petroleum  refining,  it  requires  more  stills  to 
do  the  work.  The  agitators,  L,  are  in  number  three,  being 
one  extra  to  permit  of  repairs  to  theothera.  The  receivers, 
M,  are  vessels  in  which  the  crude  oil  pumped  from  the 
retort  vat  is  settled.  The  fourth  still,  E,  may  be  used 
as  a  rectifying  still  for  the  eupion.  The  transferring 
of  the  oil  from  vessel  to  vessel  is  effected  by  the  pumps,  J, 
when  their  levels  do  not  admit  of  drainage.  The  dimen- 
vsions  of  Petroleum  refinery,  K,  contained  in  the  estimate 
of  cost  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  builder.  In  the  stills 
there  should  be  room  allowed  for  the  ebullition  and  foaming;  ^ 


148 


DISTILLERY  FOR  COAL  OILS. 


i^^^ 


Section  on  Line  C— D  of  Plan. 


IB 


Coal  Oil  IJeflnery  Plan.— 600  gals.  Capacity  per  Diem. 


DISTILLERY  FOK  COAL  OILS. 


149 


six,  eight,  or  ten  inches  below  the  top  of  the  kettle,  or  that 
part  of  the  still  below  the  dome,  is  the  proper  line  for 
working  contents.  The  agitators  should  contain  the  pro- 
posed charge  of  oil,  and  fifteen  per  cent.  over.  The  cost  of 
the  work  may  be  estimated  from  that  of  the  Petroleum 
Eefinery. 


Section  of  Broken  Line  A— B  of  Plan. 


E.  Stills. 
K.  Worms. 

0.  Worm  tanks. 
H.  lloilor. 

1.  Knjiino. 
J.   Stoam  pump. 
K.  Still  furnace. 
L.  Washers,  or  agitators. 
M.  Keccivcrs. 
N.  Market  tank. 
O.  Syphon  of  still  pipe. 


REFEUENCES. 

V. 

Drain. 

Q 

Chimney. 

K. 

Wiitur  pipe. 

H. 

Steal!  pipe. 

T. 

Washer  (jearlng. 

IT. 

I'ipo  from  agitators  to  stills 

V. 

Ventilators.    ■ 

rs.                W 

'Pail  nipos. 
Still  house. 

X. 

Y. 

Uellnery. 

Coals. — The  crude  oils  distilled  from  coals  differ  greatly 
in  yield  and  in  quality.    It  will  be  observed  in  the  table 


150 


MACHINERY  FOR  COAL  OIL  DISTILLERY. 


given  in  a  preceding  chapter,  that  a  few  varieties  will  pro- 
duce over  a  hundred  gallons  per  ton.  Some  cannels  will 
noc  yield  over  fifty,  and  others  th*  /  gallons  per  ton. 
The  qualities  of  the  crude  oils  also  differ.  Some  afford 
large  quantities  of  paraffin,  or  heavy  oil,  and  but  a  small 
percentage  of  lamp  oil.  Others  yield  much  eupion.  In 
the  purchase  of  coal  lands,  or  coal  for  the  manufocture  of 
hydro-carbon  oils,  an  accurate  test  of  the  coal  is  necessary. 
Coal  oil  works  have  been  erected  at  coal  mines,  where  tl.  ? 
coal  itself  is  almost  worthless  for  oil-making. 

Bitumens. — The  precedmg  remarks  are  also  applicable  to 
asphaltums  and  bitumens.  The  tars  of  candle  manufac- 
tories also  give  different  results,  and  yield  some  heavier  and 
some  lighter  oils. 

Retorts. — Different  retorts  also  produce  different  results. 
When  the  discharge-pipe  is  high,  there  will  be  less  crude 
oil ;  but  the  oil  will  be  lighter  and  purer.  Pressure  upon 
the  charge  and  its  vapors  during  distillation  will  diminish 
the  yield ;  and  where  the  condensation  is  inr<^jerfect,  a  part 
of  the  lighter  oils  will  escape  with  the  gas.  The  revolving 
retort  has  the  advantage  of  distilling  coals  and  bUfles  in 
less  than  half  the  time  required  for  stationary  retorts.  The 
yield  is  also  large ;  but  the  crude  oil  is  impure  from  the 
quantity  of  dust  produced  by  the  agitation  of  the  material 
during  its  dry  distillation.  More  important  than  all  is  the 
amount  of  heat  applied,  which  should,  as  an  ordinary  rule, 
not  exceed  800°  Fah.  Before  the  coal,  asphaltum,  or  any 
bitumen  is  thrown  into  the  retort,  it  is  advantageous  to 
break  it  into  small  pieces.  Large  ma.?ses  seldom  discharge 
all  the  volatile  matter  from  their  central  parts. 

Condensers. — By  removing  the  heat  that  attends  the 
vapors  and  gases  produced  by  distillation,  their  particles 
are  brought  into  closer  jjroximity,  and  all  pass  from  the 


RECEIVERS  AND  CONDENSERS. 


161 


gaseous  into  tbe  liquid  or  solid  state,  except  the  permanent 
gas,  "rliich  is  incapable  of  condensation  by  ordinary  rneuns. 
Condensers  are  usually  metallic  worms  immersed  in  water, 
which  is  kept  at  the  desired  temperature  by  the  admission 
of  cold  water.  It  is  quite  immaterial  whether  the  con- 
denser is  a  long  metallic  pipe,  a  series  of  pipes,  or  an  open 
chamber,  if  it  be  of  sufficient  dimensions,  and  kept  at  a  low 
temperature. 

Receivers — at  coul  oil  manufactories — are  tanks,  usually 
sunk  in  the  earth,  to  allow  a  descent  of  the  oils  liom 
the  condensers.  They  should  be  closely  covered,  to  pre- 
vent the  evaporation  of  the  lighter  oils,  which,  in  warm 
weather,  is  very  rapid.  The  gus  which  remains  uncon- 
densed  should  be  conveyed  to  a  gasometer,  and  there  stoi'ed 
for  fuel,  or  it  may  be  purified  in  the  maimer  of  ordinary 
coal  gas,  and  employed  for  lighting.  In  general  the  gas  is 
allowed  to  escape,  especially  where  fuel  for  the  manufac- 
tory is  cheap.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  distillation 
of  oils,  and,  with  proper  burners,  a  high  degree  of  heat 
may  be  obtained. 

Precipitation  or  settling. — W  ith  the  crude  oils  that  How 
into  the  receiving  tank  there  is  always  a  quantity  of  water, 
or  ammoniacal  liquid  combined  with  some  carbonaceous 
matter  and  other  impurities.  When  the  coal,  or  other 
material  distilled  in  the  retorts,  is  very  moist,  the  water  in 
the  receiver  will  sometimes  an'ount  to  twenty  per  cent,  of 
the  distillate.  To  remove  those  impurities  it  is  most  advan- 
tageous to  pump  the  whole  into  a  second  receiver,  or  tank, 
which  should  be  elevated  a  little  above  ti\e  working  level 
of  the  stills  it  is  designed  for. 

The  crude  oils  and  their  impurities  should  next  be  heated 

tip,  by  means  of  a  steam  coil  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 

tank,  to  90°  or  100°  Fab.    The  amnioniacal  water  and 

11 


■  ' :f^.^:^i'x-^^JiA!:?^  ...  '.^ 


152 


TREATMENT   OF  CRUDE   COAL   OILS. 


the  imjniritics  soluble  in  water  will  then  settle,  and  may  be 
readily  drawn  off. 

Ammonia. — When  the  ammonia  p>""^nt  in  the  water  is 
suflicient  in  quantity  to  pay  the  cost  i.  a  profit  upon  its 
separation,  it  may  be  neutralized  b;y  Ihu  a])plication  of 
sulpiiuric  or  muriatic  acid,  and  the  solution  evaporated  to 
obtain  sulphate,  or  muriate  of  ammonia,  or  it  may  be  pro- 
fitably employed  in  combination  with  other  manures  for 
a  feitilizer.  The  carbonaceous  matter  that  forms  a  stratum 
between  the  crude  oils  and  the  water  is  worthless  unless  it 
be  used  in  the  preparation  of  artificial  fuel. 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  CRUDE  COAL  OILS. 


The  crude  oils,  being  separated  from  their  impurities, 
may  at  once  be  submitted  to  chemical  treatment ;  but  as  a 
general  rule,  and  especially  when  they  are  heavy  and  con- 
tain much  tar,  they  should  be  first  distilled.  This  distilla- 
tion is  made  in  a  common  iron  still,  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  fire  by  fire  brick,  wdiich  equalizes  the  heat, 
consequently  the  expansion  of  the  metal,  and  lessens  the 
risk  of  fracture. 

The  "  charge"  of  oil  prepared  as  above,  may  be  run  into 
the  still  and  distilled  without  the  use  of  steam.  But  when 
it  has  been  "  run  ofl'"  to  four-fifths  of  the  whole  quantity, 
or  when  the  part  remaining  in  the  still  will  be  a  thick 
pitch  when  cold,  common  steam  should  be  gently  let  into 
the  neck,  or  breast  of  the  still.  The  steam  immediately  pro- 
duces an  outward  current  through  the  condensing  apparatus 
and  brings  ever  all  the  remaining  part  of  the  oils,  leaving 
a  compact  coke  as  th'e  only  residuum.  Furthermore,  it 
gradually  diminishes  the  heat  of  the  iron  and  prevents  it 


TREATiilENT  OF  CRUDE   COAL   OILS. 


153 


from  breaking.     When  the  steam  is  thus  let  in,  the  fire  is 
to  be  removed  from  beneath  the  still. 

Continual  Distillation. — In  the  first  distillation  cf  the 
crude  oils,  as  they  come  from  the  retorts,  and  in  subsequent 
ones,  the  oils  may  be  slowly  ad.uitted  into  the  still  after  it 
has  become  sufficiently  heated  and  the  oils  begin  to  liow 
freely  from  the  wo. in,  or  condenser.  By  the  adjustment  of 
a  cock,  a  stream  of  the  crude  product  may  be  permitted  to 
flow  through  an  iron  tube  into  the  still  while  it  is  in  ope- 
ration. The  tube  should  dip  beneath  the  oil  in  the  still, 
the  inflow  of  oil  into  which  must  not  exceed  the  out-flow 
from  the  condenser.  A  greater  amount  of  heat  will  be 
required  for  this  operation  than  for  the  common  method,  as 
much  of  it  is  taken  up  by  the  cold  oil  constantly  flowing 
inwards.  By  this  mdde  a  still  working  1000  gallo;  ay 
be  made  to  run  double  that  quantity  without  interruption, 
and  steam  may  be  applied  in  any  manner  before  described. 

The  first  distillate. — The  first  distillate  of  the  crude  oil 
should  be  separated  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  requires 
somewhat  different  treatment.  The  first  part  is  that  which 
distils  over  from  the  commencement  of  the  run  until  the 
oils  in  the  receiver  have  a  proof  of  SG"-'  by  hydrometer,  or 
a  specific  gravity  of  0"843. 

These  light  hydro-carbons  and  the  eupion  they  contain 
form  the  lamp  oil.  The  quantity  produced  will  depend 
upon  the  quality  of  the  oil,  or  other  material,  whence  they 
have  been  derived.  This  part  of  the  distillate  being 
pumped  from  the  receiving  tank,  or  otiurwise  removed,  the 
remainder,  or  second  part,  is  allowed  to  flow  m  until  it 
assumes  a  greenish  color  at  the  end  of  the  worm  pi})e,  when 
steam,  if  not  previously  employed,  may  be  let  into  ilie  still 
and  continued  until  the  whole  distillation  is  completed  ;  the 
fire  in  the  furuace  beneath  the  still  being  withdrawn.     A 


154 


TREATMENT  OF  TUE   FIRST  DISTILLATE. 


quantity  of  coke  will  be  found  to  remain,  amounting  to  ten 
or  fifteen  per  cent,  of  tbe  whole  charge,  ^'his  coke  la 
excellent  fuel,  and  after  all  its  volatile  matter  has  been 
expelled  it  may  be  employed  in  the  clarification  of  sugar. 
Wben  steam  is  not  employed  the  residuum  in  the  still 
must  not  be  run  down  lower  than  a  thick  pitch.  Coking 
in  the  still  without  steam  is  unsafe  and  hazardous  to  the 
iron. 

The  first  part  is  then  to  be  placed  in  an  iron  cistern  and 
therein  thoroughly  agitated  from  one  to  two  hours,  with 
from  four  to  ten  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  object 
being  to  bring  v'very  particle  of  the  impurities  in  contact 
with  the  acid.  Tbe  quantity  of  acid  to  be  used  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  oils  and  the  coal,  heat,  &c., 
employed  in  the  retorts. 

If  too  much  acid  is  applied  the  oils  will  be  partially 
charred  and  discolored  ;  if  too  little,  the  impurities  will  not 
be  oxidated,  and  tbe  oils  will  cbange  color.  After  the  agi- 
tation of  the  oil  and  acid  is  completed,  the  mixture  must 
remain  at  ref't  from  six  to  eight  hours,  when  the  acid,  with 
the  chief  part  of  the  impurities,  will  have  settled  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  They  are  then  to  be  drawn  off,  and 
the  remaining  oil  to  be  washed  with  ten  or  twenty  per  cent, 
of  water.  Tbe  water  removes  a  part  of  the  remaining 
acid,  and  carries  ofl"  the  soluble  impurities.  The  acid  now 
app-^ars  in  the  form  of  tar,  and  may  afterwards  be  separated 
from  the  impurities  for  further  use.  After  the  water  is 
withdrawn  the  charge  is  to  be  agitated  two  hours  with  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent.,  by  measure,  of  a,  solution  of  caustic 
potash,  or  soda  of  specific  gravity  of  1'400.  The  hydrates 
of  those  alkalies  ma}'  be  used  in  the  same  manner ;  but  the 
solution  of  caustic  soda  is  generally  preferred.  Like  the 
acid,  the  strength  and  quantity  of  the  alkali  must  be  varied 


PURIFICATION   FOR  MARKET. 


155 


according  to  the  quality  of  the  oils.  After  a  repose  of  six 
hours  or  more,  the  alkali  is  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  oil, 
and  any  further  impurities  rendered  soluble,  by  its  applica- 
tion, washed  out  with  water.  After  the  use  of  the  water 
the  oil  should  be  perfectly  neutral.  When  the  water  is 
withdrawn  from  it,  it  is  to  be  run  into  a  still  for  final  rec- 
tification. Should  any  acid  still  remain  in  the  charge,  it 
may  be  distilled  over  two  or  four  per  cent,  of  the  alkaline 
solution,  or  an  equivalent  quantity  of  lime,  or  soda  ash 
with  or  without  water.  During  the  whole  o''  these  opera- 
tions the  oils  and  the  several  wjishes  applied  to  them  are 
to  be  kept  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  90"  Fah.  This 
is  conveniently  done  by  means  of  steam  coils  fixed  at  the 
bottoms  of  the  tanks  in  whieh  the  agitations  are  made. 
The  agitator  employed  may  be  of  any  kind,  if  its  action  is 
efficient.  Finally  the  oil  is  to  be  carefully  distilled,  with 
or  without  steam.  A  small  quantity  of  the  lightest  pro- 
duct or  eupion,  which  comes  first  from  llie  condensing 
worm,  is  usually  discolored,  and  may  therefore  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  succeeding  charge. 

The  last  distillation  should  be  made  slowly  and  with 
care,  avoiding  all  fluctuations  produced  by  an  unsteady 
heat.     If  desired,  the  eupion  may  be  taken  off  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  distillation.     It  should  be  at  proof  60'^, 
or  specific  gravity,  0*733,  or  it  may  be  allowed  to  run  in 
with  the  lamp  oil.     When  the  distillate  has  reached  proof  ) 
40"^,  or  specific  gravity  0"81.9,  the  remainder  is  to  be  trans-   I 
fcrred  to  the  next  charge,  or  the  heavy  oil,  as  being  too  1 
dense  for  illuminating  purposes. 

The  mixed  oils  intended  for  lamps  have  their  disagreea- 
ble odor  chiefly  removed  by  allowing  them  to  remain  in 
flat  open  cisterns  over  weak  solutions  of  the  alkalies  during 
a  period  of  some  days.     Light  also  improves  their  color. 


156 


TUEATMENT  OF   PAKAFFIN. 


The  alkalies  employed  in  the  foregoing  treatment  may  be 
restored  and  used  in  subseciucnt  purifications. 

The  oils  of  the  second  or  heavy  part  of  the  first  distil- 
late are  purified  by  the  same  means  as  described  for  the 
lighter  oils,  except  that  they  require  the  application  of 
more  acid  and  stronger  alkalies.  All  the  oils  distilled  from 
them  at  proof  40'-'  are  to  be  added  to  the  lamp  oils.  At  the 
close  of  each  distillation,  and  as  the;  oils  acquire  greater 
density,  the  color  grows  darker  and  changeable,  finally  they 
are  partially  charred,  and  especially  when  they  have  been 
distilled  without  steam.  These  dark-colored  oils  may 
always  be  renovated  by  the  use  of  acids  and  alkalies,  the 
permanganates  of  potash  and  soda,  and,  finally,  by  distil- 
lation. The  color  of  the  lamp  oils  should  not  exceed  a 
tinge  of  greenish  yellow,  when  viewed  in  a  clear  glasj  flask 
six  inches  in  diameter.  If  by  accident,  carelessness,  or 
negligence,  the  oils  treated  by  the  foregoing  method  should 
be  impure,  they  must  be  submitted  to  washing  and  redistil- 
lation. 

PARAFFIN. 

In  general  all  the  oils  bel^^w  85°  contain  more  or  less 
paraffin  ;  below  30°  the  pnrafiin  is  still  more  abundant. 
When  the  whole  process  has  been  well  conducted  those  oils 
are  to  be  placed  in  tanks  in  cool  situations  (thermometer  at 
40°  and  lower) ;  the  paraffin  will  then  crystallize  on  the 
sides  of  the  tanks  in  beautiful  white  silvery  scales,  from 
which  the  still  liquid  oils  may  be  withdrawn. 

MODE   OF  REFINING  PARAFFIN. 


The  crude  paraffin  should  be  put  into  bags  and  sub- 
mitted to  pressure  in  a  lard-oil  press,  or  one  which  will 


TttEATMENT  OF    PAR.VFFLV. 


157 


gmduuUy  squeozo  out  the  oil.  It  should  theu  bo  pressed 
in  a  ateaniio  press,  cold,  and  all  the  oil  remaining  should 
bo  renxoved  from  it. 

The  paraffin  is  then  melted  in  a  wooden  tank  lined  with 
lead,  and  furnished  with  a  lead  or  iron  steam  eoil  in  its 
bottom.  Oneduilf  the  weight  of  the  punillin  of  strong 
sulphuric  acid  is  added  and  kept  stirred  up  witli  it  for 
four  hours,  and  it  is  then  permitted  to  settle  for  eight  hours 
at  a  temperature  of  lOO*^  Fah.  The  acids  and  impuritits 
are  then  drawn  off  and  the  parullin  [jermiftod  to  cool.  It 
is  then  again  pressed  in  th(;  stearine  press,  and  again  melted 
in  a  steam  heated  vessel,  in  wliieh  it  is  agitated  foi  three 
hours  with  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda,  when  it  is 
permitted  to  settle  for  six  hours.  The  soda  solution  is  then 
drawn  off  and  the  paraflin  allowed  to  cool,  when  it  is  fit 
for  moulding  into  candles  upon  being  again  melted. 

The  above  process  is  effective  when  the  crude  paraffin 
does  not  contain  an  unusual  amount  of  impurities.  When 
it  is  very  impure  the  treatment  with  aciil  and  solution  of 
soda  must  be  repeated,  using  less  of  the  acid  for  the  second 
treatment.  In  this  case,  as  in  the  purification  of  coal  and 
petroleum  oils,  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  exact  quantity  of 
the  reagents  to  be  used.  Crude  paraffin  differs  in  quantity, 
some  being  quite  white  and  pure,  and  other  samples  being 
black  and  heavy  with  tar  and  impurities. 

Tlie  heavy  oils,  and  those  which  drain  from  the  paraffin, 
arc  excellent  lubricators.  They  may  be  mixed  with  ani- 
mal oils  when  it  is  desirable  to  give  them  greater  consist- 
once.  As  they  do  not  readily  oxidate  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  they  are  peculiarly  applicable  as  lubricants.  The 
guiaiauKj  complained  of  by  machinists  arises  from  the  oxi- 
dation of  the  oils  they  have  heretofore  employed  to  relieve 
friction. 


158 


PURIFICATION   OF   PKTROLEUM. 


Tlieac  heavy  liydro-cnrbons,  nnd  even  the  solid  parnfTin 
itself,  mny  be  decarbonized  and  reiidiTed  suitable  for  lamps. 
Just  ill  jiroportion  to  the  amount,  or  number  of  the  equiva- 
lents of  earbon  withdrawn  iiom  them,  so  are  their  boiling 
points  lowered  and  their  sjxjeiric  gravities  diminished. 

PURIFICATION  OF  PETROLEUM. 

The  usual  method  practised  by  refiners  of  petroleum  is 
as  follows : — 

The  petroleum  is  permitted  to  settle  out  water  and  impu- 
rities at  a  temperature  of  90°  F.,  and  is  then  pumped  into 
an  iron  still,  such  as  have  been  described,  when  it  is  sl(jwly 
and  earefull}'  distilled  over  open  fire.  Ten  to  twenty  per 
cent,  of  the  charge  of  crude  oil  is  usually  taken  from  it  as 
naphtha.  The  remainder  is  distilled  as  low  as  possible,  to 
give  the  greatest  yield  of  lamp  oil,  which  should  not 
vaj)orize  under  115°  or  120°  Fah.  The  residuum  is  made 
use  of  as  mentioned  in  the  second  chapter.  The  lamp  oil, 
which  is  usually  76  to  85  per  cent,  of  the  charge,  is  next 
well  agitated  with  1^  to  2  per  cent,  or  1^  to  2  gallons  of 
sulphuric  acid  to  the  hundred  gallons  of  the  distillate,  and 
permitted  to  settle  for  several  hours.  The  acid  and  impu- 
rities are  then  drawn  off.  It  is  then  agitated  with  water 
to  remove  the  acid,  and  finally  with  three  per  cent,  or  three 
gallons  to  100  gallons  of  the  charge,  of  a  solution  of  caus- 
tic alkali  made  as  follows : — One  gallon  soda  ash,  half  a 
gallon  of  fresh-slacked  lime,  five  gallons  of  water,  boiled 
twenty  minutes  in  a  kettle  with  steam  jacket  or  over 
fire,  and  used  at  a  specific  gravity  of  1-300  or  SG'^  by 
Baume's  hydrometer.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  the 
exact  quantities  of  the  reagents.  The  refiner  may  vary 
them  to  suit  the  petroleum  to  be  treated. 


PURIFICATION   OF   I'ETHOLEUM. 


159 


It  will  1)0  observed  that  llic  refining'  of  pctroloum  is  a 
very  mucli  phoiipcr  pnx'css  tliiin  tlic  procuriiii^  of  oil  from 
conl.  Distillafiuii  over  carbonaUi  of  soda  lias  boon  found 
advantageous  in  aoino  eases.  Distillation  hv  superlioated 
Bteani  ean  be  reeonnneiuled  for  its  causinjjf  tin*  oils  to  distil 
over  in  a  uhiter  and  purer  eondition  than  wlien  obtained 
by  open  fire.  It  is  siife  and  perleetly  under  control,  and 
is  now  used  very  largely  in  Great  Jiritain  for  distilling 
shales  and  also  for  petrol(Mim  refining. 

In  distilling  by  sujierhouted  .steam,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that,  although  the  heating  pipcis  are  at  a  temperature 
which  would  cause  the  steam,  if  confined,  to  burst  them, 
it  is  not  confined,  but  has  a  free  passage  into  the  still  by 
means  of  tin;  perforated  pipe.  Of  course,  if,  by  accident, 
the  itdet  valve  became  stop|)ed,  and  the  still  exit  closed  at 
the  same  time,  the  superheater  would  be  destroyi'd — but 
there  is  hardly  a  chance  that  either  of  those  two  things 
could  oi'eur. 

In  I'efiidng  Canada  petroleum  a  larger  percentage  of  acid 
is  us('d  than  in  treating  the  Pennsylvania  petroleum,  but 
the  process  is,  with  that  exception,  the  same.  The  odor  of 
crude  Canada  ])etroleuin  is  very  offensive.  This  may  be 
removed  by  adding  nitric  acid  to  the  oil,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  pint  of  acid  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  oil,  and  at  the 
same  time  adding  one  gallon  of  chloride  of  lime.  The  oil 
must  be  well  stirred  and  settled.  This  process  removes 
the  odor  as  far  as  the  oil  is  concerned,  when  it  is  not  being 
distilled.  Nitric  acid,  or  traces  of  it,  would  be  very  harm- 
ful in  distillation,  and  the  original  odor  would  return. 
Aflcr  the  petroleum  has  been  refined,  the  addition  of  the 
above  quantities  of  nitric  acid  and  chloride  of  lime,  and 
thorough  agitation,  will  for  the  greater  part  remove  the 
odor  of  the  refined  oil. 


160 


PURIFICATION  OP  PETROLEUM. 


l\rany  attempts  have  been  made  to  refine  petroleum  by 
filtration,  or  by  agitation  with  various  chemicals.  A  filter 
of  bone-black  will  remove  the  color  in  some  degree,  but 
it  would  be  too  expensive  a  process  cr  the  large  scale, 
even  were  it  to  render  the  oil  of  a  uniform  gravity  of 
819,  or  proof  40°  Baumu — a  thing  which  it  cannot 
do.  Oxalic  ether  exercises  a  bleaching  effect  upon  petro- 
leum, but  it  does  not  render  it  fit  for  lamps,  and  would  be 
very  expensive.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  mode  other, 
than  distillation  will  over  be  found  practicable  in  the  puri- 
fying of  petroleum  oils.  Those  persons  interested  in  petro- 
leum should  be  very  cautious  in  embarking  in  any  new 
mode  of  refining  petroleum.  Nothing  but  the  most  abso- 
lute demonstration  of  the  practicability  of  a  new  process 
could  satisfy  the  author  that  anything  except  distillation 
can  separate  the  naphtha,  burning  oil,  and  heavy  oil,  as  his 
experiments  in  the  direction  of  any  other  process,  though 
they  number  several  hundreds,  have  so  far  been  productive 
of  no  practical  result. 

In  refining  petroleum  or  coal  oils,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  acid  used  be  wholly  removed  by  the  alkali  or 
water  washing ;  many  samples  of  petroleum  oil  are  found 
to  contain  sulj)huric  acid  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce 
a  most  disagreeable  and  dangerous  quantity  of  sulphurous 
acid  gas  in  burning.  This. has  been  noticed  by  physicians 
upon  visiting  patients  in  the  country,  where  the  oil  is 
most  used.  The  atmosphere  of  the  sick  room  is  very  soon 
made  poisonous  by  the  gas  evolved  by  the  night-lamp. 
Sulphurous  acid  gas  is  very  irritating  to  the  lungs  and 
mucous  membrane.  The  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
oil  may  be  detected  by  adding  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
barium  to  the  oil,  when  a  white  precipitate  will  fall  if  any 
acid  be  present. 


PETROLEUM   REFINERY. 


16] 


A  piece  of  white  blotting  paper  moistened  with  a  solu- 
tion of  iodic  acid  and  starch,  held  over  the  flame  of  the 
lamp,  will  become  bluish-purple  if  sulphurous  acid  gas  is 
being  produced  by  the  combustion.  This  test,  however, 
may  not  always  be  correct,  as  iodine  may  be  set  free  by 
other  deoxidizing  agents  produced  by  combustion.  The 
chloride  of  barium  is,  however,  perfectly  reliable. 


PETROLEUM   REFINERY. 

The  drawings  on  pages  162  and  163  represent  a  convenient 
arrangement  of  apparatus  for  refining  petroleum.  The 
superheated  bteam  apparatus  may  be  employed,  or  not,  at 
the  option  of  the  refiner.  If  it  is  employed,  the  mode  of 
operation  would  be  as  follows : — 

The  still.  A,  is  filled  to  within  six  inches  of  the  top  to 
which  the  dome  is  bolted,  ^y  the  pump,  b,  which  draws 
the  petroleum  from  the  settler,  E,  in  which  is  a  coil  of  inch 
iron  steam-pipe,  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  settler  at 
90°  Fah.  The  settler  is  filled  from  the  underground 
receiver,  d,  by  the  pump,  b.  This  underground  receiver 
is  so  arranged  as  to  receive  the  petroleum  from  barrels 
being  rolled  over  it  and  emptied. 

The  still  being  charged  and  the  superheater  having  a  fire 
under  it  which  would  give  the  steam  a  temperature  of  800° 
Fah.,  the  drip  cock  of  the  superheater  (see  cut  on  page  86) 
is  opened,  to  permit  any  water  or  moist  steam  to  escape, 
and  afterwards  the  steam  valve  communicating  with  the 
superheater  is  opened  gradually,  and  the  steam  permitted 
to  pass  into  the  still  by  tlie  pipe,  E,  which  is  a  two-inch 
wrought  iron  pipe  bent  under  the  dome,  carried  down  the 
side  of  the  still,  coiled  twice  around  the  bottom  of  the  still, 
and  perforated  with  holes  not  less  than  one-eighth  inch  in 


162 


PETROLEUM  REFINERY. 


I 


Q'^'ZJ 


I 


irw 


1 


aoiitm 
STILL    HjOUSE. 


-JJSL.... 


rnr; 


::!--:-- gn?! u...'j»-:::v-.:1 -ho^r 

Peti'olvum  Keflnery.    Pluii, 

diameter.  As  the  hot  steain  enters  the  still  there  will  be, 
for  some  time,  a  considerable  condensation.  This  can  be 
remedied  by  having  a  gentle  fire  under  the  still,  but  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary,  as  a  still  set  in  sand  will  soon 
become  heated  to  the  proper  point.  The  worm  tub,  i, 
must  be  abundantly  supplied  with  cold  water  from  the 
wfitertank  outside  the  building,  or  by  a  pump.  The  inlet 
to  the  tub  should  be  at  the  bottom  and  the  overflow  at  the 
top,  by  which  the  hot  water  can  be  carried  away  to  the 
drain,  or  to  a  vessel  from  which  it  can  be  pumped  into  the 
boilers.  A  great  economy  of  heat  can  be  effected  by 
making  use  of  hot  instead  of  cold  water  for  feeding  the 
boilers.  The  distillate  comes  over  about  half  water.  AS 
it  proceeds,  the  heat  under  the  superheater  is  increased, 
and  more  steam,  at  a  pressure  of  40  lbs.  in  the  boiler,  is 


PETROLEUM  REFINERY. 


163 


ElaratioD 


Section  on  LtNE  C-D 


164 


REPINING   BY  SUPERHEATED  STEAM. 


passed  into  the  still.  At  the  close  of  the  distillation,  the 
superheater  pipes  will  be  at  a  temperature  of  700°  Fah., 
when  the  petroleum  employed  is  of  proof  40^  to  45° 
Baume.  For  heavier  oils  it  will  be  at  800°  Fah.  The 
rapidity  of  the  distillation  is  regulated  by  the  valv-:  on  the 
superheater,  and  it  can  be  made  perfectly  uniform  with 
very  little  attention.  There  is  no  danger  of  "  boiling  over," 
as  in  distillation  over  open  fire,  which  cannot  always  be 
controlled. 

The  naphtha  which  comes  over  first  to  the  extent  of  about 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  charge,  is  cut  off  at  SS''  Baume 
generally,  and  permitted  to  run  into  a  receiver.  It  may  be 
redistilled,  to  purify  it  for  market. 

The  remainder  of  the  distillate  is  run  into  the  under- 
ground receiver,  G,  whence  it  is  pumped  into  the  agitator, 
U,  by  the  pump,  C  It  is  allowed  to  settle  in  the  agitator 
for  iree  hours,  and  any  water  from  it  is  run  off  by  the 
cock,  K.  The  acid,  one  and  a  half  to  two  per  cent.,  as 
desired,  is  then  added  to  the  oil  in  the  agitator,  and  the 
stirring  machinery  put  in  mcition  by  the  gearing,  L,  and 
the  engine,  M.  When  atmospheric  agitation  is  used,  this 
gearing  is  not  required.  (See  cut  of  air  agitator,  page  84.) 
After  agitating  with  acid  for  three  hours,  the  oil  is  settled 
for  two  hours,  and  the  acid  and  tar  thrown  down  by  it  are 
drawn  off  by  the  cock,  k.  Water  is  then  added  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  quarter  of  the  oil,  and  the  oil  is  thoroughly 
washed  and  settled  for  two  hours.  The  water  is  then  drawn 
off,  and  the  alkali  wash,  previously  described  (page  158), 
is  added,  and  after  two  hours'  agitation,  is  permitted  to  set- 
tle for  three  hours,  or  until  the  oil  becomes  clear.  The 
agitator  is  kept  at  90°  Fah.  by  the  steam-jacket,  b.  The 
oil  is  then  run  off  by  the  cock,  o,  into  the  tanks,  N,  N, 
where  it  mov  be  allowed  to  settle  for  market 


•■*£.-    *.  .-■..-t.fcl'.^ 


'0 


<fiMMi 


REFINING  BY  SUPEIIIIEATED  STEAM. 


165 


The  heavy  tar  remaining  in  the  still  is  drawn  off  by  a 
cock  placed  near  its  bottom,  after  a  few  hours,  or  when  it 
has  cooled  sufficiently  to  prevent  its  taking  fire  on  exposure 
to  the  air. 

In  the  drawings,  the  stills  and  su[)erheaters  are  in  sets 
each  side  of  the  boilers.  This  is  to  save  room,  and  to  have 
each  set  independent  of  the  other,  so  that  in  case  of  repairs 
being  needed  to  one  set,  the  whole  work  would  not  be 
deranged  and  hindered.  The  building  is  capable  of  two 
more  sets  of  stills  and  boilera  orw  the  opposite  side,  thus 
doubling  its  capacity.  The  agitator  projects  a  convenient 
distance  above  the  floor  of  the  upper  story  to  admit  of 
easy  handling  of  the  carboys  of  acid  which  are  to  be 
emptied  into  it.  This  upper  floor  also  affords  space  for 
making  the  alkali  wash,  which,  when  caustic  soda  is  used, 
is  simply  by  dissolving  it  in  water  until  the  proof  is  SQ^ 
by  Baum^'s  lye  meter.  When  soda  ash  is  employed,  the 
mode  already  described  will  give  it  sufficient  causticity. 
Barrels,  cans,  and  many  other  articles,  can  be  stored  on  this 
floor. 

Where  superheated  steam  is  not  used,  the  boilers  will 
not  be  required  of  the  size  shown  in  the  drawing.  The 
manipulation  with  the  acid  and  alkali  will  be  the  same, 
however.  In  regular  working,  one  of  each  set  of  stills 
should  be'  kept  always  at  work,  the  fire  uiuh.'r  the  suj)er- 
heater  never  being  permitted  to  become  very  low,  or  so 
low  as  to  cause  cracking  of  the  pipes.  There  is  no  eco- 
nomy of  fuel  in  permitting  the  lire  to  die  out. 

The  syphon  upon  the  tail-pipe,  P,  is  useful  in  distilling 
Canada  petroleum,  or  the  tar  of  stearine  distillation,  us  it 
forms  a  trap,  which,  connecting  with  the  pii)e,  Q,  carries  the 
offensive  gas  generated  to  the  outer  air. 

The  pumps  should  be  capable  of  pumping  the  whole 


i 


rXt^^K,^<^?H-;f'^; 


m'm 


166 


COST  OP   ERECTING   PETROLEUM   REFTNEKY, 


charge  in  one  hour;  and  the  pump  .atjd  fo.-  pumping  crude 
petroleum  should  never  be  used  for  refined  oil.  Wlier,  the 
agitator  becomes  dirty,  or  after  each  settling  of  acid  or  al- 
kali, a  steam  jet  from  a  rubber  hose  may  be  used  against  its 
sides  with  good  effect.  Steam  at  forty  lbs.  is  an  excullont 
scrubber,  and  is  very  convenient,  as  it  will  reach  corners 
and  crevices  very  readily. 

Care  must  be  taken  tu  keep  all  vessels  used  in  oil  mak- 
ing perfectly  clean.  A  jet  of  -feam  carried  into  th(>  throat  of 
the  gooseneck,  by  a  pipe,  a.  in  tho  drawl .u^s  on  p.i/^es  148, 
140,  is  very  useful  in  cooling  down  an  i  the  charge  is  off. 
Such  a  refinery  as  the  one  just  described  can  b:  erected  at 
tb-   Jollowing  cost : — 

Ik  Gold, 

4  Cast-iroa  Stills,  7  feet  diaaieter,  4  feet  deei", 

contents  1 145  gallons,   working  contents 

900  gallons,        ...  .        $500       $2,000 

4  Condi  u-^iug  Wormt;,  100  feet  long,  tapering 
from  4  inches  l>,  '.ilt  inches,  in  tanks  com- 
plete,  200  800 

2  Superheaters,  each  60  feet  of  2-inch  pipe, 

in  furnace,  comjilete,  .        .        .  350  750 

2  Boilers,  36  inch  shell,  2  12-inch  flues,  16 

feet  in  length,     .....  400  800 

2  Washers  or  A.gititors,  7  feet  diameter,  5 
feet  d'"3p, 140  280 

1  Petroleum  Settler,  10  feet  diameter,  8  feet 

deep, 200 

2  Underground  Receivers,  7  feet  diameter,  5 

feet  deep, 100             200 

1  Underground  Receiver,  8  feet  diameter,  6i- 

feet  deep,            100             100 

1  5-Horse  Engine,         ....  300 

2  Steam  Pumps  (15  gallons  per  minute),  250  500 
Gearing  for  washers,  ....  200 
Pipes,  cocks,  and  fittings,       ...  ,                  500 


fillip 


KEFUSE    OF   OIL   REFINERIES. 


167 


Bujlilinj'   G2  feet  8  inches  lung,  85  feet  wide, 
'2  storii';-*.  with  yhaCt  2  fl'L-t  by  2;  Hue,  50 


feet  l.i,  i 


.inif 


ilete, 


S*  uing  ijoii,  s  and  stills, 


4,000 
GOO 


$11,230 


It  is  caj)f(bl6  of  refining  2,000  gallons  of  petroleum  per 
daj,  ;uK  WO!. 1(1  turn  out  about  1,500  gallons  of  refined 
oil  in  tl;:u  time.     It  would  require  one  superintendent,  two 


eug-u.  ers,  lour 


still 


men,  at 


id  f 


our  liel 


pe 


r.s. 


The  cost  of  many  of  the  petroleum  refineries  has  been  less 
than  the  sum  named,  and,  of  a  few  of  them,  ten  times  greater. 

In  man_y  places  the  petroleum  refinery  consists  of  a  com- 
mon boiler  still  apd  worm,  and  a  few  vait<.  There  arc  large 
"works,  however,  in  which  the  details  are  wt'l  canicd  out. 
The  works  of  the  Liverpool  Oil  Kclining  Company,  at 
Bootle,  near  Liverpool,  under  the  direction  of  Andrew 
McLean,  are  very  complete  and  efilcient.  Those  of  the 
Kerosene  Oil  Company,  on  Newtown  Creek,  Long  Island^ 
New  York,  and  those  of  Samuel  Downer,  at  Curry,  Penti- 
sylvania,  are  also  very  extensive  and  j)erfect. 

In  some  refineries,  when  air  is  used  as  an  agitssiilwr,  tho 
pipes  communicating  with  the  air-pump  or  blower,  |>ass 
near  the  boiler  or  furnace  flues,  and  iu  this  wjn^-  Kna*  thjic 
air  before  it  is  driven  into  the  oil.  It  is  su^>^>o!4v\v  itK^X  Wt 
air  is  a  better  oxidator  than  cold. 


REFLTSE   OF   OIL   EErjXEKlKS. 

Formerly  the  acids  and  alkalies  used  iita  coal  oil  and 
petroleum  refining  were  cousidoixxl  as  wae^te  materials,  but 
they  are  now  made  use  of  in  va^ix>us  w;3^\"t5. 

The  acid  "  bottoms,"  so  called, are  tt'^A\  U\  the  manufacture 
of  superphosphate  of  lime,  the  oil  being  partly  ixjmoved. 


1G8 


REFUSE  OF  OIL  REFINERIES. 


In  large  works  it  would  be  an  economy  to  recover  the 
Rlkali  by  evaporation  and  calcination.  This  was  success- 
fully done  by  James  Campbell,  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  while  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing  coal  oil  at  Cliarleston,  Kanawha 
county,  Weste/n  Virginia,  some  years  ago. 

In  coal  oil  works  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  illuminat- 
ing gas  generated.  This  will  hereafter  be  put  to  use,  no 
doubt,  when  the  situation  of  the  works  will  admit  of  it. 

At  situations  where  coal,  or  the  supply  of  coke,  is  insuf- 
ficient, the  gas  may  be  most  advantageously  employed  for 
producing  steam,  and  for  all  the  distillations  required  in 
making  and  purifying  the  oils.  For  those  purposes  it  is 
superior  to  any  other  kind  of  fuel,  as  the  heat  may  be 
increased  or  dinainishtHi  instantaneously  at  the  will  of  the 
operator.  For  hentinir  tho  ••!-<  -^''liiuires  no  purification, 
and  recent  inipn:>V'  -  in 

will  supply  the  highest  teni 

Coke. — "When  the  ©oal  cr 
used  for  fuel  :  tin-  col"  o 
nous  shales  is  of  littJe  v;i'  Sn^e    it 

bitumens  afford  a  small  rftsniiiif  of  i'vuA. 

AiiJu's, — Ashes  C'll""  -  >  I'l  •'  luiirufuctoriies  in  lai^e 
quantities,  anii  they  dizieir  ini.  tan  ■  position  aeeording 
to  t;ie  nature  of  t^e  essil  coDr^iaiutu.  In  aJ..  cases  where 
they  contain  ajny  sonw^isable  >  -nionaige  of  lime,  they  will 
be  found  valuable  fertiliznaig  &^<  its   ,.)r  cortaiin  soils. 

A  iivmoiiiacal  u'OBier. — Whenever  ::.  trogem  esmiters  into  the 
composition  of  the  coal,  shale,  or  onher  msBfterai  distilled  in 
the  retorts,  ammoniacal  water  wil]  be  one  m  the  products, 
and  upon  it  the  lighter  oils  will  repose  m  the  receiving- 
vessels.  The  quantity  of  ammonia  is  <>ften  very  con- 
siderable. 

Sulphate  0/ ammonia. — To  prepare  the  sulphate  (;f  ammo- 


-;iT 


inc  beat  Ijy  this  ^ent 

liredi. 
.  rTords  a.  good  coke  it  is 
coal  and  the  birumi- 
r     ;u?phaJltiaims  and 


i^amatHL 


KEFUSE   OF   OIL  REFINERIE8. 


169 


Ilia  from  the  crude  ammoniacal  water,  tlie  latter  is  to  be 
saturated  witli  sulphurie  acid,  and  evaporated  in  a  cast-iron 
boiler.  The  saturation  may  be  made  in  a  l(?aden  vessel, 
and  the  evaporation  performed  b3-  steam.  Wlien  the  li(pud 
lias  attained  a  specific  gravity  of  1400,  or  thereabouts,  it 
should  be  run  into  a  vessel  lined  with  lead,  and  crystal- 
lized. Another  mode  consists  of  distilling  tlie  ammoniacal 
water,  and  conducting  the  distillate  into  a  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid  of  spec.  grav.  1"700.  In  this  case  the  sulphate 
of  ammonia  is  precipitated,  and  may  be  dipped  out  with 
ladles. 

Clilorohi/driih  of  ammonia  {sal  aramoniar). — To  form  the 
sal  ammoniac  of  comnierce,  the  ammonial  water  is  to  be  satu- 
rated with  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid).  It  is  usually 
evaporated  in  vessels  of  lead,  and  then  run  into  wooden 
coolers.  The  salt  is  then  to  be  dried  in  stoves,  and  iinally 
sublimed  in  iron  pots  with  large  domes.  Some  days  are 
required  to  complete  the  last  operation. 

The  pitch  resulting  from  distillation  of  coal  oil  or  petro- 
leum is  now  used  for  varnish,  roofing,  and  other  jiurposes. 

It  will  always  be  worth  the  attention  of  those  in  the  trade 
to  recover,  in  some  way,  a  part  at  least  of  the  value  of  the 
chemicals  employed.  Nothing  can  be  considered  as  abso- 
lutely a  waste  product  which  has  been  formed  in  the  vari- 
ous manipulations  of  the  oil  refiner. 

The  acid  bottoms,  or  the  tarry  matter  thrown  down  by 
the  acid  in  refining  petroleum,  is  now  said  to  be  successfully 
a})plied  to  the  production  of  aniline.  This  may,  in  some 
degree,  account  for  the  very  great  fall  in  the  price  of 
uniline,  but  it  is  probably  due  to  the  increasing  quantity 
manufactured  abroad.  The  various  aniline  dyes,  in  crys- 
tals, can  be  now  purchased  for  from  $7  to  $8  per  lb.  Two 
years  ago  the  price  was  $200  for  the  same  quantity. 


»i-.i.w^j*-^4-! 


170 


IIVDUOMKTKW. 


BAUMK's    HYDROMKT'-ni. 


•tf,.-. 


SCALE. 

t 

lift 
«0 
M 
M 
4S 
40 
:» 
80 
25 
•20 
15 
10 

T.VBLK  OF  SPECri'IC  GU.\VITIE8  OF  OTLt^, 

COnKK.'jpONDINO  TO  KKdllKKH  OK  IIYDHOMKTEK. 


"5^ 

^1 

• 

^1 

1    ^ 

>  i  i  fc 

1     l 

^  5  ,i 

£   3    S£ 

1   i 
J,    -J 

70 

0  090 

49 

0-778 

28 

0-880 

G9 

0-700 

48 

0-782 

27 

0-886 

08 

0-704 

47 

0-787 

26 

0-890 

07 

0-707 

40 

0-791 

25 

0-89S 

06 

0-711 

•45 

0-795 

24 

0-903 

C.J 

0-713 

44 

0-800 

23 

0-910 

04 

0-718 

43 

0-804 

22 

0-915 

03 

0-722 

42 

0-808 

21 

0-921 

02 

0-725 

41 

0813 

20 

0-927 

61 

0-729 

40 

0-819 

19 

0-933 

00 

0-733 

39 

0-824 

18 

0  044 

59 

.0-737 

38 

0-828 

17 

0-940 

58 

0-741 

37 

0-833 

16 

0-951 

57 

0-745 

30 

0-S38 

15 

0-959 

50 

0-749 

35 

0-843 

U 

0-906 

55 

0-753 

34 

0-848 

13 

0-971 

54 

0-757 

33 

0-854 

la- 

0-979 

53 

0-701 

32 

0-800 

11 

0-980 

52 

0-705 

31 

0-804 

10 

0-991 

51 

0-709 

30 

0-809 

50 

0-773 

29 

0-8',  5 

;  -_ijafc;tiL ,  v-.a.. 


m^ 


PYROMKTKH. 


171 


The  scald  in  conuuou  usi;  lor  iisi^ertiiiniug  tlic  sppcilic 
gravity  of  tluids,  li;,'litc'r  or  liwivucr  iluin  walrr,  in  tluit  of 
]iaumt\  It  is  ran.-lj  nuulo  with  sudicieut  cure  lo  insure 
accurate  correspondence  between  thcdegrecs  marked  upon  it 
and  the  trnesi)eciric  j^ravity.  It  is,  however,  accurate  enou<j;li 
for  general  purposes,  and  is  the  liydrom(!ter  referred  to  in 
tills  work,  accidentally  omitted  to  be  mentioned  in  its 
proper  plaee. 

JIauine's  hydrometer  for  liquids  heavier  than  water, 
such  as  is  u.'^ed  for  acids,  solutions  of  salts,  etc.,  is  the  one 
referred  to  when  tlu;  strength  of  alkaline;  solutions  is  men- 
tioned, uidess  any  other  is  indicated  by  name. 


'    I'YUOMETER   FOll  COAL  AM>   I'ETROLKUM   OILS. 

This  instrument  is  used  for  determining  the  exact  tom- 
peratiirc  at  which  an  oil  will  inflame.  Instead  of  being 
sold  by  proof  by  the  hydrometer,  the  oil  is  tested  and  rated, 
as  it  will  stand  110'^'  Fah.  or  llo""  Fal-  without  takinu:  lire. 
The  cuts  below  are  representations  of  the  pyrometer  made 
by  Ctiuseppe  Tngliabue,  of  New  York. 

Fig.  1  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  Pykometer,  as  it 
a}>pears  when  prepared  for  testing  the  tem[)eraturc  of  the 
oil  at  tlie  moment  of  the  explosion  of  its  vapor.  Fig.  2 
represents  the  instrument  when  prepared  for  measuring  the 
inilaming  point  of  the  liquid  oil. 

The  bath,  ]i,  is  supported  in  its  cyliudical  stand,  C,  made 
of  metal,  which  has  an  aperture  near  the  bottom,  to  admit 
of  tin?  insertion  of  a  small  spirit  lamp  ;  when  this  lamp  is 
lighted,  the  oil  is  of  course  gradually  heated  by  the  water, 
and  it  emits  vapor  with  a  rapidity  proportioned  to  its  vola- 
tility ;  this  vapor  is  mingled  with  atmospheric  air,  which 
enters  through  two  perforations,  d  d,  (Fig.  1),  in  the  cover 


% 


172 


CKMENT  FOR  IROK  JOINTS. 


Km.  1. 


Fui.  '2. 


of  the  cup,  .1,  and  thus  forms  an  explosive  mixture  that 
ascends  into  the  eyhnder,  F.  On  the  insertion  of  a  lighted 
taper  in  the  aperture,  t',  in  the  cylinder,  the  lowest  explosive 
temperature  of  the  oil  is  accurately  indicated  by  a  slight 
explosion  or  "  puff,"  and  a  simultaneous  ins])ectiou  of  the 
mercury  in  the  thermometer.  After  partly  removing  the 
cover  of  the  lamp  by  revolving  it,  and  holding  the  flame 
in  actual  contact  with  the  escaping  vapor  until  the  oil 
burns,  the  therinometor  will  precisely  indicate  the  degree 
of  inflammability. 

CEMENT  FOR   IRON  FLANGED   OR  SOCKET  JOINTS. 

Fine  iron  borings  or  filings,  5  lbs. ;  sal  ammoniac,  in 
powder,  2  oz. ;  water  to  mix  to  a  paste,  which  is  well 
rammed  into  the  joint  by  blunt  chisels  to  suit.     The  filings 


•  .it'- 


-K  .S^f.L. 


-TBifi-^fiif^^ 


C08T  OF  ARTIFIC'IAt,   LIOHT. 


178 


should  he  na  fine  us  jioshIIiIo.  In  flanjrod  joints  tlio  comoiit 
is  prevented  from  entering  the  pipe  by  a  thin  rinj?  of  iron 
jiUieed  inside  the  Hno  of  the  ht^lt-holes.  The  holtH  should 
bo  serewed  up  after  the  joint  is  made  vvitii  the  eement. 

A  very  exeelleiit  hjting  for  joints  whieh  are  to  bo  ofleu 
broken,  s\ieh  as  manhole  plates,  is  made  of  lino  slacked  limo 
and  common  gh'.e.  The  glue  should  be  dissolved  to  athiek 
jelly,  and  tiie  lime  added,  until  a  stiff  pnsto  is  formed.  No 
more  should  be  mixed  tlian  wauled  for  innnediate  use, 
whitdi  may  apply  also  to  the!  iron  cements.  h\  mnking 
rust-joints,  as  the  iron  cefnenting  is  called,  the  flanges,  or 
sockets,  should  be  cleaned  with  a  solution  of  nnuiatic  acid 
before  the  joint  is  rammed.  A  good  lino  clay,  free  from 
sand  or  grit,  is  the  eheaju'st  luting  for  retort  lids. 


COST  OF  AUTIFICIAL  LIGHT. 


Illiiniliiutliig  Mntorlul. 

ViM  pur  11).  or.tj'iiilon. 

C(in»iiini)tl(>n  In 
four  iiiuira. 

ClKt   of 
I.I- lit   |ilT 

liiiiir. 

Wi'x  carxlk'H  (red) 

SO  50  per  lb. 

532  grains 

1-CG8  cts. 

"            "            (KfL'tMl) 

458       " 

Paraflin   «'uiullos,  O's. 

0  GO      " 

507       " 

V?Atr}    " 

Tallow          "         OV. 

u  15      " 

5G3       " 

0-324   " 

Sperm          "        4's. 

0  40      " 

587       " 

0984    " 

Stnr             " 

0  'J5      " 

g:]G     " 

0-r>88   " 

Laril  oil 

1  20  per  frnllon. 

12G1  ozs.  fluid 

2-090    " 

Burning  (liiid  .     .     . 

0  75 

5-01)        " 

0-740   " 

Kerosfiu-     .... 

1  20        " 

3-89        " 

0-912    " 

xnnENPA. 

Petroleum  oil.      .     . 

1  00 

3-24        " 

0-800    " 

Now  York  coal  gas  . 

2  50  per  1000  ft. 

4  feet  burner. 

1-000   " 

mmmc^ 


174 


YIELD  OF   PRINCIPAL   PETROLEUM   WELLS. 


The  foregoing  iable,  relating  to  tlie  cost  of  Artificial 
Light,  lias  been  extracted  from  tlie  statement  of  Dr.  Chnrles 
M.  AVetherill,  and  published  in  77i('  Amcrhuii  Gm-Li(j]d 
Journal,  ^Fay  1,  1800. 

LOCALITY,    DEPTHS,    AND   YIELD   OF    SOME    OF    THE    PRIN- 
CIPAL  PETROLEUM   WELLS   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

The  "  Burned"'  well,  on  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  was 
completed  in  April,  l^Bl,  nt  a  depth  of  330  feet.  On  t^i 
afternoon  of  April  17,  while  the  workmen  were  engaged  \\\ 
tubing,  a  stream  of  gas  suddenly  lifted  the  tools  out  of  the 
well  and  leaped  above  the  derrick  in  a  continuous  and 
sickening  volume.  The  engineer  put  out  his  fires,  and  then, 
with  the  rest  of  the  hands,  fled  from  the  sickening  odor  that 
oppressed  the  air.  A  crowd  collected,  some  one  in  which, 
approaching  too  near,  suddenly  ignited  the  gas,  which  went 
off  with  a  terrific  ex[)losion,  setting  fire,  of  course,  to  the 
stream  of  oil  issuing  from  the  well.  The  conflagration  that 
ensued,  and  which  continued  for  four  days  and  nights, 
finally  destroyed  the  well.  The  lives  of  several  persons 
were  lost.     The  well  has  not  yielded  any  since. 

The  "  Brawley"  well,  at  a  de])tli  of  503  feet,  began  to 
flow  in  the  summer  of  1801,  yielding  000  barrels  jier  day. 
After  flowing  ayear  and  a  half,  the  yield  began  to  diminish. 
It  speedily  ran  down  to  nothing. 

The  "  Van  Slyke"  well  "struck  oil"  in  the  fall  of  1801, 
at  a  depth  of  about  500  feet,  and  first  flowed  at  the  rau^  of 
6oO  barrels  per  day  It  also  gave  out  in  about  a  year  and 
a  half. 

The  "Big  Phillips*'  well  struck  oil  in  October,  1801,  at 
a  depth  of  -ISO  feet.  The  estimated  quantity  of  the  original 
flow  was  from  3,000  to  4,000  barrels  p^r  day.  The  rush  (jf  oil 


..-I^; 


..AA. 


YIELD   OF   PRINCIPAL   PETROLEUM   WELLS. 


iO 


•was  so  overwliclming,  tliat  it  was  several  days  before  the 
well  could  be  tubed;  4(>,000  to  50,000  barrels  of  oil  were 
lost  in  the  creek  before  the  workmen  finally  got  control. 
The  well  was  subsequently  (like  every  other  well  yielding 
at  that  period)  not  permitted  to  flow  under  anything  like 
full  headway,  the  price  of  oil  being  so  low  as  not  to  jiay. 
The  flow  began  to  decrease  about  the  latter  part  of  1S')2. 
In  this  year  another  well,  tlie  "  Woodford,"  was  put  down 
near,  wliich  tapped  the  same  vein  of  oil,  and  assisted  in 
diminishing  the  flow.  The  "  Big  Phillips"  is  now  running 
at  the  rate  of  325  barrels  per  day.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
only  well  which  began  flowing  without  having  been  pre- 
viously tubed.    / 

The  "Woodford"  well,  alluded  to  above,  was  originally 
a  1,500  barrel.  Its  yield  b-'-gan  to  decrease  in  ISGG,  and 
finally  ceased.  Being  resuscitated,  it  is  now  pumping  50 
barrels  per  day. 

The  "Jones"  well,  put  down  In  the  latter  part  of  1362, 
within  30  feet  of  the  "  AVoodtbrd,"  tap[)ed  the  same  vein, 
flowing  400  barrels  per  day.  Its  flow  decreased  gradually 
until  the  well  had  to  be  pumped.  it  is  now  doing 
nothing. 

Tlie  "Xoblc"  well  struck  oil  in  April,  1803.  Its  maxi- 
mum daily  yield  was  between  1,900  and  2,000  barrels.  It 
flowed  six  months  with  undiminished  volume,  when  it  be- 
gan to  decrease.  It  was  flowing  until  the  1st  of  February, 
1865,  at  the  rate  of  150  to  200  barrels  per  day,  when  an 
accident  stopped  it.  This  well  is  said  to  have  netted  its 
owners  over  S53,000,000. 

■  The  "Empire"  well  was  smik  in  the  fall  of  1861,  and 
began  flowing  from  2,500  to  3,000  barrels  per  day.  The 
flow  continued  diminishing  gradually  for  something  over 
two  years,  when  it  stopped.     The  well  lay  idle  about  a 


i 


I 


mmmi 


176 


YIELD  OP  PiilNCIPAL  PETROLEUM  "WELLS. 


year.  In  the  summer  of  1864,  an  air-pump  was  applied, 
wliich  caused  the  well  to  resume  flowing  lightly — five  ©r 
six  barrels  per  day.  The  flow  then  slowly  increased  to 
140  barrels.  The  well  is  now  yielding  110  barrels  per 
day. 

The  "  McKinley"  flowing  well,  on  Oil  Creek,  is  remark- 
able for  the  permanence  of  its  yield.  It  has  given  from 
50  to  60  barrels  per  day  for  nearl_y  three  years.  It  is  under 
very  excellent  management. 

The  "  "Williams  and  Stanton"  wells,  three  in  number, 
yield  150  barrels  per  day  in  all.  These  wells  must  have 
pierced  the  same  reservoir,  as  it  is  found  that  by  stopping 
two  of  them,  the  oil  will  flow  from  the  third  at  the  above 
rate. 

The  "Roed"  well,  on  Cherry  Run,  gives  280  barrels 
per  day. 

The  "Fox"  well,  at  Petroleum  Centre, yields  160 barrels 
per  day. 

In  "Western  Virginia,  the  "  Burning  Spring"  well,  the 
"Llewellyn,"  and  others  have  been  noted  for  their  yield  of 
oil. 

It  has  been  computed,  thai  in  the  beginning  of  the  pre- 
sent year,  the  district  of  Oil  Creek — the  most  productive  of 
the  Pennsylvania  oil  regions,  and  embracing  an  area  of 
3,200  acres — contained  480  wells  already  sunk,  542  wells 
in  progress,  and  189  producing  wells.  The  average  daily 
yiel'l  from  this  district  was  estimated  at  4,000  barrels. 


-S?:-*"!?**)??******-*^ 


••-iWfR* 


« 


INDEX 


PAOK 

Aciils, 128 

Agitators, 

.    84,85 

Action  of  sulphuric  acid, 

129 

nitric  acid, 

129 

Acid,  sulphuric, 

154 

Albert  coal,     .        .        .1 

49 

Alkalies, 

128 

Ammonia,       .... 

152,  168 

Ammoniacal  water, 

168 

Aiimionia,  sulphate  of,     . 

108 

Anthracene,    . 

!  !)l) 

Aniline,  .... 

103,  104 

Aniline  dyes,  . 

105,  106,  108 

Alliole,    .... 

102 

Asphaltura, 

49 

distillates  of, 

124 

Ashes,     .... 

1G8 

Artificial  light,  cost  of,    . 

173 

Australian  coals, 

53 

Atistcn,  J.  H., 

10 

Anstcn,  G.  W., 

10 

Bitumen  of  Trinidad, 

41 

Cuba,  . 

42 

Dead  Sea,    . 

111 

Virginia, 

54 

South  America, 

42 

Canada  West,      . 

40 

West  India  Islanc 

Is,     ". 

42 

California,    . 

17 

oils  of,. 

54,55 

Baku,  petroleum  of, 

43 

Bmniah,     " 

43 

Bituminous  substances,  table  of  product 

^, 

56 

clay's  und  sands, 

55 

**»lilfc 


ITS 


INDEX. 


Broomaii's  [latcnt,  . 
Hodman's  pati-nt,  . 
Batici'ot't's  paU'iit,  . 
Buildiugti, 

Bicarburettcd  liydrof^en,. 
Benzoic, 

nitro, 
Brick  ovens,    . 
Cainpljoll,  Jamua,     . 
'"/'ements, 
Coal,  varii'tit's  of,     . 

Composition  of, 

ElVects  of  heat  upon, 

Eoj,'liead, 

Albert,   . 

Breckenridge, 

Australian, 

Talile  of  products  of, 

Products  of  the  distillation  ot 
Coal  distilled  for  gas  and  for  oils 
Coal  tar, 

volatile  bases  in, 
Candle  tar, 
Caouti'liene,    . 
Cedrin>t, 

Carlnuetted  hydrogen,    . 
Chloi'oliydride  of  annaonia. 
Caustic  alkali  solution,     . 
recovery  of, 
Carbolic  acid, 
Canada,  petro'eum  of, 
Choke  (lamii.  . 
Coke  ovens,     . 
Crude  coal  oils,  treatment  of, 
Condensers, 
Continual  distillation, 
Copnomor, 

Cuke,  .... 
Cmnole,  .... 
Derrick,  .... 
Dundoiialil,  Eail  of, 
Deii.-itii  s  of  jietroleum,  . 
Dumoulin  and  Colelle's  method 


148, 


110, 


102. 


44 
12 


140 

141 

143 

103 

123 

102 

103 

04 

108 

172 

44 

,45 

,13 

47 

49 

50 

57 

'50 

!t3 

110 

9-1,  !I5 

94 

51 

115 

92 

123 

100 

158 

108 

100 

40 

123 

08,  .09 

152 

71,72 

15.3 

90 

108 

98 

27 

8 

114 

143 


mmm. 


4' 


INDEX. 


179 


Distillery,  coal  oil,  . 

Distilling  by  superheated  stcarir 

DistiUiition,  contimial, 

Dislillati',  first, 

Distillation  of  wood, 

Drake,  E.  L.,  . 

Downer,  Samuel,    . 

Early  rffnrtl-", 

Elleets  of  heat, 

Eupioii,  . 

Ferris,  A.  C,  . 

Formula, 

Fire  damp, 

Germany,  oil  mnnufactones  in 

German  methods,    . 

Gas, 

Gases  of  coal  mines, 

Gesner,  Henry, 

Hydro-carl  ion  oils, 

Hydro-carhona, 

Ilydniytn, 

Homologous  series  obtained  from 


oal  I 
Bitumen  o! 

K,inaA\  iui  ( 
Caoutehoui 


Hydrometers, 
Heat,  (tVects  of, 
Hales  and  Watson, 
Impurities  in  hydrocarbon  oils, 
Kerosene^  ])v  !Ccss  of  mannfaetiire, 
Kerosene,  A,  B,  and  C,  . 
Kerosene  Oil  Companj',  . 
LaiU'ent,  .... 

Leucoline,       .... 
Mansfield,  patent  oi, 
proe<'ss  of, 
McLean,  Andrew,  . 
N.iphtha,  reetilied,  from  coal  tar, 

Nilrii-  acid 

Naphthalin 

Ovens,  briek,  .... 
Odorine,    .... 


Trinidad 

('ill 

lal, 


l;!,T 


148 

](i4 

153 

153 

8!) 

21 

l(i7 

8 

13 

op 

21 

IIU 

1^3 

135 

135 

108 

40 

77 

1'21 

122 

122 

124 

121 

125 

125 

12(1 

17t) 

13 

12 

127 

135 

135 

107 

8 

101 

131 

131 

87 

102 

129 

99 

04 

100 


f'. 


180 


INDEX. 


PAOI 


Organic  and  homologous  compounds, 

117 

Oils,  oxygen, 

116 

Oils,  hydrocarbon,  . 

121 

Organic  compounds,  table  of,  . 

117 

Oils,  crude,  from  coals,    . 

152 

treatment  of. 

152 

Oil-well  tools  and  machinery, 

.    27,35 

Oil  liinds,  value  of,  . 

• 

20 

Picoline,          .... 

100 

Paranai)hthalin, 

100 

Petroleum,  origin  of. 

18 

of  theU'>it^^St"tes, 

17 

wells,  , 

20 

of  Canadn 

40 

export  o;,     , 

22 

of  Trinidad, 

41 

of  Cuba,  West  A.miu  Islands,  anc 

I  So. 

America, 

42 

of  Burmah,  Java,  Rangoon, 

43 

refinery,       .... 

1(12,  1(!;5 

puritication  of. 

, 

, 

158,  lo9 

varieties  of, 

38 

refinery,  cost  of,  . 

if5(; 

Products  of  the  distillation  of  woo 

d,  : 

89 

Picamar,          ..... 

90 

Patents, 

131,  14(3 

Pittical, 

92 

Peat,  products  of,  .... 

57 

Pyroxanthine 

92 

Process  of  Mansfield, 

131 

Young,. 

132 

for  kerosene. 

134,  135 

Patent  of  Wagenmann,  . 

135 

Peat  Company,  Irish, 

57 

Permanganate  of  potash, 

130 

Pitch, 

109 

Paraffin, 

91 

process  for  refining,  . 

156 

Receivers, 

151 

Retorts,  revolving,  .... 

03 

vertical,     .... 

05 

stationary, 

60 

clay, 

66 

Reichenbach, 

8 

\^ 


>  u 


"1*'&-:^-» . ..-- 


INDEX. 


ISl 


Refuse  of  oil  refineries, 

Refinery  for  petroleum, 

Silliman,  Prof., 

Stills,      ... 

Still  and  condenser, 

Selligup,  patent  of. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia, 

Sal  nnniioniac, 

Sulphuric  acid. 

Superheated  steam  apparatus, 

Toluole,  . 

Vohl's  process. 

Washers,  or  a.c^itators. 

Worms,  condensing, 

Wood,  products  of  the  distillation  of. 

Young,  James,  patents  of. 


FAGE 

1G7 

102 

17 

li,  75,  80 

78 

131 

UiS 

ICO 

ir>i 

80 
98 

81,  85 


ro. 


loO 

89 

9 


